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Particular sources of income are appropriated for the extinction of this debt.

The elections in New York, the greatest city in America, have hitherto gone off pretty quietly; especially since the number of places for holding the polls has been increased. It is asserted also that since the enlargement of the elective franchise, and the removal of qualifications and property restrictions, the elections and the government have remained about the same as before, while the population has become more contented.

In Philadelphia the citizens annually choose an alderman for each ward, and a mayor for the city twenty-five years old, a resident of the state for four years, and of the city for two. He receives a salary of $3,000. That the adjoining suburbs are not under the same magistrate was attended during the late riots with very pernicious consequences. On the other hand all the public institutions, those for the poor, the blind, the deaf and dumb, the insane, widows and orphans, the water and gas works, the schools and academies, the medical college, &c., are deserving of the highest praise. Their construction is appropriate and even splendid; and the great Girard institution, after many evasions and hindrances, will finally come into existence.

The chief income of the city is derived from a tax on real estate (about 36 cents on the $100); the tax on personal property is not yet completely arranged. Of late years the expenses have been diminished by good management to about $430,000. In the year 1843, they were:

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In Pittsburg there are annually chosen two councils and a mayor, the latter having no veto upon the joint action of the former.

In Richmond the citizens choose annually twenty-seven persons, who appoint the mayor and eleven aldermen out of their own number. The remainder form the so-called legislative council.

In Washington twelve aldermen and a mayor are chosen for two years, and a second council of eighteen members for one year. Nothing is more striking to an observer of the American, and especially of the city administration, than the remarkably frequent change of officers; and we are inclined at the outset to think that the government must be incompetent and fickle. the other hand we must observe :

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First, that too infrequent changes bring with them other evils;

and that the filling up of vacancies from the limited circle of magistrates and councillors, is still worse than a free system of election which by repetition corrects itself.

Secondly, that in other republics archons, ephori, consuls, tribunes, podestà, mayors, rectors, &c. were changed just as frequently; that in general, the idea that every office must be occupied for life, is here altogether unsuitable and out of date. A brief tenure of office produces stricter responsibility, and lessens the possibility of an abuse of power.

Thirdly, that in America there is far less governing than elsewhere; and that every citizen partly on that very account is better acquainted with public affairs, and more capable of managing and judging of them than in Europe, where only a few after long preparation acquire and use the necessary knowledge. There is besides more reason to fear the lack of fidelity and honesty than of capability, because one can support another.

Fourthly, every American magistrate exerts himself during his brief stay in office to accomplish something valuable and lasting; and though his ambition does not lead him like the Roman consuls to gain battles, yet he takes a pride in founding schools, useful structures, and public institutions, and even in devoting his official income to the common weal.*

Fifthly, that it would therefore be most injurious, if in the choice of magistrates more regard were had to their political views than to their capacity and fitness for office, and if in the administration, party purposes were kept more in view than the general welfare.

CHAPTER XXX I.

OUTBREAKS AND PARTY SPIRIT.

Murder of the Mormon Prophets-Anti-Rent Excitement in the State of New York -Philadelphia Riots-Disturbances in Rhode Island-On Outbreaks-PartiesFederalists, Republicans, Democrats, Whigs-Concluding Remarks.

ALTHOUGH, for reasons already given, more single outrages are perpetrated in the interior and in the newly settled regions of the West, we have unfortunately to lament acts of injury and tumults on a larger scale in the rapidly growing cities on the sea-board.

The mayor of Boston, Mr. Brimmer, had 3,500 copies of an excellent book, "The Schoolmaster," printed for distribution at his own expense.

Such were the destruction of a convent in Boston, of a private dwelling in Baltimore, and in Philadelphia that of a negroschool and a hall where the abolitionists had met. This is not the place to recur to these old and half-forgotten evils; yet I must dwell somewhat in detail upon a few more recent instances of violence and commotion, as an introduction to some general observations and conclusions.

MURDER OF THE MORMON PROPHETS.

I shall speak in another chapter of the sect of the Mormons and their adventures: but aside from their doctrines, the murder of these soi-disant prophets is a crime of the greater atrocity, inasmuch as they were already imprisoned on specific charges, and there was not only reason to expect an impartial sentence, but the Governor of Illinois had pledged himself for their safety. The allegation, that the Mormons had attempted to rescue the prisoners by force, had fired the first shot, and so brought on a bloody contest, is not true. The governor in later official statements charges the crime, which had been previously resolved on, solely upon persons disguised for the purpose as Indians, and expresses himself forcibly and impressively with regard to the offence. It is earnestly to be hoped, that his determination to apprehend the perpetrators and bring them to trial may experience no obstacle in the ruling passions of the day.

ANTI-RENT EXCITEMENT IN THE STATE OF NEW YORK.

As early as the time of the Dutch government, large tracts of land on both sides of the Hudson were assigned to the Van Rensselaer family, under conditions which founded a sort of feudal relation. The family subdivided the land among numerous tenants, who engaged to render certain dues (e. g. of grain, wood, fowls, &c.), and in case of a sale, to pay to the patroon a fourth of the purchase-money, as proprietary fee. Those dues were not high, even at first; and by reason of the uncommon rise in the value of the lands, they can still less be deemed oppressive in modern times. The wealthy predecessor of the present proprietor had been far from urgent in demanding these dues, but had suffered large arrears to accumulate. When his heirs, in conformity with their rights, demanded payment of the outstanding and accruing debts, there arose disputes and lawsuits, which the plaintiffs gained, according to the plain letter of the ancient laws and contracts. No sooner, however, did the sheriff attempt to execute the sentence of the court, and to levy upon property, than he not only met with resistance, but, for more effectual intimidation, was tarred and feathered by persons in disguise. Such an outrage committed upon a public officer

merits severe punishment, which it is to be hoped it will soon experience; if not, it is evident that the evil and license are likely to increase, and to involve innocent persons as well as irresolute magistrates in redoubled anxiety and suffering. In such cases, half-measures never suceeed. But putting these improper proceedings out of the question, there is also another light in which such a state of things may be viewed, and which shows how useful and necessary it is in all countries to change, though gradually and with cautious foresight, such institutions as are no longer suited to the times. The longing for a property wholly free from encumbrance or obligation of any kind is so excessive in the United States, that even an inconsiderable tax is esteemed an oppressive burden, and its payment shunned as almost a degradation and disgrace. For this reason, real estate so encumbered finds comparatively few who desire and purchase it. Should however a purchaser appear, the seller regards it as intolerable, that he should pay, as fee to the proprietor, a quarter of its value-a value that has been greatly increased by the application of his own capital and industry. In former times, when real estate changed hands very rarely, this encumbrance was not a heavy one; but in these days of purchase and sale, the whole value might easily fall into the hands of the proprietor in the course of a few years, in consequence of an alienation four times repeated. Such views and circumstances explain, at least, the disinclination and opposition of those who are liable to such payments; and it is to be desired and hoped, that an amicable adjustment will not much longer be deferred.

RIOTS IN PHILADELPHIA.

Well informed people maintain that the riots in Philadelphia were not caused by an irregular, licentious passion, breaking out on the spur of the moment; but were the effect of causes that had been long in operation, and of a relaxation of moral principles and restraints. In this respect, it is said, an evil example was set by those in authority, and even the government itself as for instance, by their predilection for the debauching and dishonest banking system, by the doubly mean and reprehensible suspension of the payment of interest on the state bonds with sufficient means on hand for the purpose, and also by their manifold exhibitions of frivolity and licentiousness. Be that as it may, the recent riots produced on all sides and in every quarter a display of error, guilt, and crime. No party can be pronounced innocent and wholly acquitted of blame, when, in a city boasting of its quiet, good order, and brotherly love, robbery, murder, and incendiarism rule for three entire days unchecked. We ask in astonishment, How was this possible? and the answer explains

the fact and proves the guilt, while it produces some palliating circumstances and announces better prospects for the future.

In Philadelphia a great number of Irish had gradually settled. Their competition in many branches of industry was looked upon by some with an evil eye; and the joy which they manifested at their newly acquired freedom, amounting sometimes to arrogance, was censured by many more. But the greatest offence was given by their zealous Catholic spirit, their confidence in their priests, and their dependence upon them. Like the Protestants, they sent their children to the public schools, and here the question, as to the reading of the Bible, became the pretext and ground for all the subsequent controversies and deeds of violence. Instead of learning concord out of the book of love and piety, and of coming to a real Christian union in spite of minor differences of opinion, zealots without authority seized upon this doubtful theme, in order to stir up and control those of their own faith. First of all, the Catholics demanded that, as they were obliged to contribute to the school-tax, in proportion to their property, their children should not be compelled to receive Protestant instruction in religion, or to be present at the singing of Protestant hymns.* The school-authorities agreed perfectly with this view of the matter, so entirely in conformity with American religious freedom; but a ready compliance with their direetions was by no means general in the schools.

In connection with this question, another was immediately raised: What translation shall be used in reading the Bible? The variations between the Catholic and Protestant translations are by no means either numerous or, so far as the scholars are concerned, important; but if the Protestants, right or wrong, insist positively on using their version, it is not to be wondered at that the Catholics on their side do the same. These disputes soon extended beyond the circle of the authorities and school-officers: intolerant clergymen found fault from the pulpit, and violent writers in the journals of the day; it was no wonder that the multitude also was roused to passion, when one party called the other heretics, superstitious, infidels, who wanted to rob the people of the Bible, or impose a creed upon them by force.

Many native citizens, relying on their superior numbers, made a point of stirring up the too easily excited Irish; bitter and coarse objurgations were succeeded by clubs and fire-arms, by murder and conflagration. The very declarations and testimony of the officers demonstrate the universal lack of order, celerity, harmony, and obedience. The mayor of the city proper was not allowed to act in the suburbs, and the authorities of the suburbs did

*With regard to similar claims and controversies in New York, see the chapter entitled Religion and the Church, the Catholics.

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