have occurred amongst the standards, from accident or disease, at the time of removal. Among other advantages resulting from the wide planting of orchards, may be mentioned the healthful and invigorating influence of the sun on every part of the trees, and thereby causing them to bring forth more fruit, and that which is larger, fairer, and better flavoured; for an apple, of a globular form, three inches in diameter, contains twenty-seven times more bulk, than one of an inch in diameter, (globes being to each other as the cubes of their diameters.) Hence apples are not to be valued by their number only, but by their size; and indeed, by their weight; for most weight must be expected where there is most juice, and juice will follow health and vigour.* Another important advantage is, that trees planted at wide intervals from each other, have more room to spread, without the interference of their roots and branches, and consequently will bear a greater quantity of fruit. A tree with a hemispherical head, fifty feet in diameter, will have twenty-five times as much fruit-bearing surface, as one of the same formed head ten feet in diameter. In other words, circumstances being equal, it would produce as much fruit as twenty-five of the smaller trees, although it would occupy but little more than one half as much ground.

The usual mode of planting out trees in an orchard, is the square-form; but the system most esteemed and adopted by the ancients, was to plant them in quincuncem, that is, in the form of the Roman numeral V., which answers to four asterisks placed in the corners of an oblong square, with a fifth midway between them. The two modes may be illustrated by the following diagrams:

The quincunx, when compared with the square-form, saves one eighth of the ground, and has the advantage of disposing the trees at equal distances apart in every direction.† The vacant spaces which will be left at the ends of every other row of standards, may be filled with supernumerary dwarf trees, and allowed to remain permanently. To plant temporary trees between the principal ones, so as to divide the distances into halves, will require about two supernumeraries for every principal one, by the square-form, and a less number by the quincunx

* Papers of Mass. Agr. Soc., 1804, p. 85.

The following is a practical method of laying out an orchard by the quincunx-form :-First, determine the points for the centre of each tree in the outer row, by setting stakes at equal distances apartsay fifty feet. Take a line one hundred feet in length, with a knot or mark in its middle, and place its two ends at two contiguous stakes; then extend the knot or mark till the whole line becomes stretched in two equal lengths, and the knot or mark will indicate the place for a tree in the next row, where there should be driven another stake. Repeat the same operation with a second pair of stakes in the outer row, and another point will be determined in the next row, where there must also be inserted a stake. In like manner, continue with all the other stakes, checking, in the mean time, each of the stations by oblique, cross, and longitudinal sights, till the whole be completed. Every tree in such an orchard, will be fifty feet from each of its neighbours; but the rows will be only forty-three and three-tenths feet apart; and this distance is to fifty feet nearly as seven is to eight. Consequently, one eighth of the ground will be saved, as intimated above. In order to show the distance of the rows apart by the quincunx-form, the

form, if dwarf standards are allowed to remain in the vacant spaces which occur at the ends of every other row. This will be more clearly understood by an inspection of the diagrams below, in which the asterisks denote the standard trees, (D) the permanent dwarfs, and (s) the supernumary trees.

distance of the trees from each other being given, the subjoined table has been constructed from Euclid, i., 37. which may be applied with advantage to other species of culture :—

The following table may also be useful for readily pointing out the number of trees and other plants required for a statute acre of land, when planted at any of the under-mentioned distances apart :~

In pruning apple-trees, it is alike important to regard the general form of their heads, as it is the management of their individual branches. A system which has long been practised in Europe, and has been adopted for many years in the United States, is to lead out of the upright stem, at a given height, a series of horizontal branches, each series comprising four limbs, situated at proper intervals, till the tree can bear no more of them. The advantages resulting from this mode are, that the boughs can be made capable of producing fruit at an earlier age; the strength of such branches, at the place of their insertion into the stem, is much greater than of those which grow at more acute angles; and that the flat or semi-spherical heads of such trees seem designed not only to lessen the hold of the wind, but to diminish the influence of the shade on the crops around them, as well as to admit light, heat, and ventilation within them. It has been recommended that the head of the tree be somewhat hemispherical, with a hollow space left in the line of its central parts; for these parts are more secluded from the light and air, than the rest of the tree, and consequently are not adapted to the production of fruit. In forming the head of a tree in the Atlantic parts of the United States, it has also been recommended to diminish the weight and quantity of boughs on its east or north-east side, (the side opposite to the prevailing winds,) as trees generally incline that way; and to encourage the branches on the opposite side to screen the sun from the trunk, in order to prevent its powerful rays in summer from killing the bark, and causing canker and ruin to the tree. Mr. Knight recommends most attention to be paid to the lateral branches, which, if unchecked by occasional pruning, are apt to load the tree too much at the extremities. Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New Jersey, entertained a similar opinion. "Young fruit-trees," said he, "should not have the side-shoots cut close to the stem, which forces the growth the whole way up the top; which becomes so weighty, as to bend and spoil the trees. I have found it better to cut the ends of the side-shoots * ** which will encourage the growth of the stem or trunk, till it acquires strength to support a good top." After the head of the tree is properly formed, nothing more is necessary than to cut out all the branches that cross each other, or are likely to be in the way within three years. As the trees produce their fruit upon cursions or spurs, care must be observed not to cut off or destroy them, as they continue to be fruitful for several seasons. It has also been recommended to "prune at a fork," or at least, "at a bud;" on the ground that a wound is best protected when covered by bark from without; and as the bark never spreads over the end of a long stump, but only over the place from which it has been taken, the new cover must be supplied by the extension of the bark of another branch, and such a branch, even a bud may become in time. Till this extension of bark be effected, however, an artificial covering should be substituted, by shaving the wounded surface close and smooth, and applying immediately a plaster composed of

This mixture should be warmed over a slow fire for three-fourths of an hour; and when melted, but not too hot, be put on with a brush to a depth of one sixteenth to one half of an inch in thickness, according to the size of the wound.

In performing these operations, particular care must be observed not to injure the remaining branch or bud; and should a cut accidentally be made, the wounded part should by no means be removed, but be pressed fast together, and a coat of the composition immediately laid over it. The bearing capabilities of apple-trees of considerable age may be much improved by judicious pruning, in removing decayed branches, and old, unprofitable boughs, where the head is too much crowded. These should, in all cases, be taken off by a clean cut, close to the branch from which they are separated, or at least to a lateral shoot, so that the part may heal over as soon as possible. The proper season for pruning is about mid-summer, or about the time the downward motion of the sap commences, and when a more perfect cicatrization of the wounded parts take place, than if pruned in the winter or spring. Another important rule in pruning is, to remove every part of the tree "incurably diseased;" not only because the disease may be contagious, but because rottenness of itself occasions increased evils, from the weather, from insects, and other causes. When the adjoining wood and bark are pruned to the quick, and properly sheltered, room is given, as we have pointed out, for a natural cover to be made for the wound. But we must repeat, that the wound, if possible, must be protected, or the evil may be made worse, from various causes. When consistent, the wound occasioned by pruning should be on the lower side of the branch, rather than on the upper side; especially where no composition is intended to be applied, as the lower side is least exposed to the sun and rain. It is a good rule to have no reliance on boughs which are kept continually damp by the drippings of other boughs, or upon those which are kept constantly screened from the sun. "The general shape of an old tree" should be kept substantially the same, in order that the ascending juices may continue as nearly as possible in their established channels; or if changes are aimed at, they should be gradual. Hence, care must be taken not to cut off "too many large limbs at a time," lest the sap of some of the roots, and particularly those corresponding to these limbs, should be too suddenly checked in its ascent. Sometimes trees, which at first were good bearers, become stag-headed and unfruitful. It is more than probable that this condition is owing to some defect in the soil. The proper remedy to be resorted to in this case is, what is called "heading down;" that is, removing all the branches to within a foot or two of the main forks, or the stem of the tree, in order to encourage the formation of a healthy and vigorous head. This operation should be accompanied by a heavy dressing of compost, formed of lime, ashes, and loam, extending for a considerable distance round the tree, which should be dug in with the turf. According to the opinion of some orchardists, pruning, after the head of the tree is properly formed, is to be avoided as much as possible, as it creates numerous useless shoots, and prevents the production of fruit. A very important advantage, however, may be derived from this principle, by provoking young shoots to appear by skilfully wounding the bark in the vacant spaces of a branch, and thereby regulate the symmetry of the tree.

Accidents, Diseases, and Insects. The apple-tree, as a standard, is more liable to accidents, the attacks of insects, and to diseases, than the pear-tree. Its branches are more frequently broken by tempestuous winds, whereby their wounded parts, in being exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, sooner decay, and tend greatly to lessen the productiveness and the duration of the tree. When situated near the borders of woods, orchards are often injured by the American grouse, or partridge, (Tetrao umbellus,) which greedily devours the flower-buds, in winter, when the ground is covered with snow. The apple-tree is also subject to canker; more especially when planted deep, or in a soil which is annually dug round it to some depth, and cropped with vegetables. In some soils, also, particularly those which contain much oxide of iron, the tree is liable to canker under any mode of cul

ture; and the remedy, or palliative, in such soils, is liming abundantly, to neutralize the oxide; and planting on the surface, without digging the ground, but only hoeing, or keeping it entirely in pasture. The trunk and branches, in some soils, and in moist situations, are liable to be infested with lichens and moss, which must be scraped off; and in others, the mistletoe is apt to take root, which must be cut out. The fungus, Acidium cancellatum, which also grows on the leaves of the pear-tree, and produces what is called mildew, is not unfrequent on those of the apple-tree.

The leaves, flowers, fruit, and wood of the apple-tree are subject to the attacks of numerous insects, or their larvæ, against which there are few or no remedies. One of the most common enemies to this tree, in Europe, particularly in England, is the cotton insect, or woolly aphis (Aphis lanigera, of Linnæus, and Eriosoma mali, of Leach.) This insect was first described by Hausmann, in 1801, as infesting the orchards of Germany; but it was noticed in England as early as the year 1787, and has since acquired in that country, though improperly, the name of "American blight," from the belief that it had been imported from America. Although it exists in the United States, it is exceedingly rare; but it is thought not to be indigenous, but was brought to this country on fruit-trees from Europe. It appears to have been known, also, by the French gardeners for a long time previous to either of the above-named dates; and according to Mr. Rennie, it is found in the orchards in the vicinity of Harfleur, in Normandy, and is very destructive to the trees in the department of Calvados. The eggs of this insect are so small that they cannot be distinguished without the aid of a microscope. They are enveloped in a cotton-like substance, furnished by the body of the insect, and are deposited in the forks of the branches, and in the chinks of the bark, at or near the surface of the ground, especially if there are suckers springing from that place. The young, when first hatched, are covered with a very short, fine down, and appear, in the spring of the year, like so many little specks of mould. As the season advances, and the insects increase in size, their downy coats become more distinct, and grow in length daily. This down is very easily removed, adheres to the fingers, when touched, and appears to issue from all the pores of the skin of the abdomen. When fully grown, the insects of the first brood are one tenth of an inch in length, and, when the down is rubbed off, the head, antennæ, sucker, and shins, are found to be of a blackish colour, and the abdomen of a honey-yellow. The young are produced alive during the summer, are buried in masses of the down, and derive their nourishment from the sap of the bark and of the alburnum or young wood directly under the bark. The adult insects, it is said, never acquire wings nor honey tubes, but from time to time, they emit drops of an adhesive fluid from the extremities of their bodies. Although destitute of wings, they are conveyed from tree to tree by means of their long down, which is so plentiful and so light, that they are easily wafted by the winds of autumn, and thus the evil will gradually spread throughout an extensive orchard. The numerous punctures of these insects produce on the tender shoots a cellular appearance, and wherever a colony of them is established warts or excrescences arise on the bark; the limbs thus attacked, become sickly, the leaves turn yellow and drop off; and, as the infection spreads from limb to limb, the whole tree becomes diseased, and eventually perishes.* A writer in the London "Entomological Magazine" describes the mode of propagation of this insect, and gives a method of destroying it as follows:-"These blights wander wherever it pleases the wind to carry them; and, if bad luck should drive one of them against the branch of an apple-tree, there it will stick, creep into a crack in the bark, bring forth its young, and found a colony. The white cotton soon * See Harris' Report, p. 193. Also Illiger's Magazine, i., p. 440; and Rennie's Insect Miscellanies, p. 180.