Ligulate.

Another

analyses indicate the variable composition of lignite. One specimen from France contained, in round numbers, the following proportion of constituents: Carbon, 70; hydrogen, 6; oxygen, 18; nitrogen, 1; ashes, 5. Another specimen, also from France, contained, carbon, 64; hydrogen, 4.6; oxygen, 17; nitrogen 1; ashes, 13.4. specimen from Switzerland contained, carbon, 70; hydrogen, 5; oxygen, 20.5; nitrogen, 1.3; ashes, 3.2. Another specimen from Siberia contained, carbon, 47 5; hydrogen, 45; oxygen, 32; nitrogen, 1; ashes, 15. Another specimen from Germany contained, carbon, 70; hydrogen, 3.2; oxygen, 7.6; nitrogen, 1: ashes, 15.5. The last specimen shows a considerably less proportion of oxygen than the others, but that of carbon is scarcely greater than in the other specimens. It is to be presumed that its heating power does not differ much from theirs. The principal deposits of lignite in the United States are in New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, California, Oregon, Wyoming, and Alaska. In New Mexico the beds are all in the cretaceous formation, and chiefly in the lower portion. In Colorado and Wyoming the beds occupy a space not less than 50,000 sq.m., the strata varying in thickness from 1 to 30 feet. Many of these lignites are now mined in Colorado, and they resemble in quality the best brown coals of the old world. Some lignites, as in Trinidad, and in Utah, near Salt Lake City, are capable of being coked and used in smelting. The lignites of California are cretaceous, and many of them find their way to San Francisco. On the coast of Oregon the lignites belong to the tertiary period, and have been mined for several years. An analysis of a specimen of coal from Mount Diablo, Cal., by H. S. Munroe of the N. Y. school of mines, gave the following results: Carbon, 59.724; hydrogen, 5.078; oxygen, 15.697; nitrogen, 1.008; sulphur, 3.916; water, 8.910; ash, 5.637. A lignitic anthracite from Sonora gave, carbon, $4.103; hydrogen. 0.852; oxygen, 2.137; nitrogen, 2.80; sulphur, 0.229; water, 5.191; ash, 7.204. This is evidently a superior coal, considered as a lignite. There are occasionally seams of lignite along the Atlantic coast in tertiary formations, mingled more or less with clay.

LIG NUM RHO'DIUM, a kind of wood which occurs as an article of commerce, having a pleasant smell resembling the smell of roses. It is brought to Europe in strong, thick, and rather heavy pieces, which are cylindrical but knotty, and sometimes split. They are externally covered with a cracked gray bark; internally, they are yellowish, and often reddish in the heart. They have an aromatic bitterish taste, and, when rubbed, emit an agreeable rose-like smell. This wood comes from the Canary islands, and is produced by two shrubby and erect species of convolvulus, with small leaves, C. scoparius and C. floridus. It is the wood both of the root and of the stem, but the latter is rather inferior. An essential oil (oil of lignum rhodium), having a strong smell, is obtained from it by distillation, and is used for salves, embrocations, etc., and also very frequently for adulteration of oil of roses.-Besides this lignum rhodium of the Canary islands, an American kind is also a common article of commerce; it is produced by the amyris balsamifera, a native of Jamaica, and yields an essential oil, very similar to the former. The lignum rhodium of the Levant is now scarcely to be met with in commerce. It is the produce of liquidambar orientale. From this, however, the name has been transferred to the other kinds.

LIG NUM-VITE, the wood of guaiacum officinale (nat, ord. zygophyllaceœ), and probably of some other species, natives of Jamaica and St. Domingo. The hardness and exceeding toughness of this very useful wood was shown by prof. Voigt to depend upon a very peculiar interlacing of the fibers. The heart-wood, which is the part used, is very dense and heavy, of a dark, greenish-brown color, rarely more than 8 in. in diameter; the stem itself seldom reaches 18 in. in diameter, and grows to the height of about 30 feet. The wood is much valued for making the wheels of pulleys and other small articles in which hardness and toughness are required; large quantities are consumed in making the sheaves (see PULLEY) of ships' blocks. Besides these uses, the wood, when reduced to fine shavings or raspings, the bark, and also a greenish resin which exudes from the stem, are much used in medicine, being regarded as having powerful anti-syphilitic and anti-rheumatic properties. See GUAIACUM.

LIG NY, a village in Belgium, in the province of Namur, about 10 m. n.e. of Charleroi, famous on account of the battle fought here by the French, under Napoleon, and the Prussians under Blücher, June 16, 1815, the same day on which the French, under marshal Ney, were engaged with the British, under Wellington, at Quatre-Bras. Napoleon had formed a plan for overpowering his antagonists in detail ere they could concentrate their forces; and contrary to the expectations both of Wellington and Blücher, began his operations by assailing the Prussians. The battle took place in the afternoon. The possession of the villages of Ligny and St. Amand was hotly contested; but the Prussians were at last compelled to give way. The Prussians lost in this battle 12,000 men and 21 cannon; the French 7,000 men. A mistake prevented a corps of the French army, under Erlon, from taking the part assigned to it in the battle, and led to Ney's encountering the Belgians and British at Quatre-Bras (q. v.), instead of uniting his forces with those engaged against the Prussians at Ligny.

LIG'ULATE (Lat. ligula, a little tongue), a term used in botany to describe a corolla of one petal split on one side, and spread out in the form of a tongue or strap, toothed at the extremity. This form of corolla is very common in the composite, appearing in all

Lille.

the florets of some, as the dandelion, and only in the florets of the ray of others, as the daisy and aster. The term, however, is of general application.

LIGULE. Sec GRASSES.

LIGUORI, ALFONZO MARIA DE, a saint of the Roman Catholic church, and founder of the order of Liguorians or Redemptorists. He was b. of a noble family at Naples, Sept. 27, 1696, and embraced the profession of the law, which, however, he suddenly relinquished for the purpose of devoting himself entirely to a religious life. He received priest's orders in 1725; and in 1732, in conjunction with twelve companions, founded the association which is now called by his name. See LIGUORIANS. In 1762 he was appointed bishop of Sant' Agata dei Goti, in the kingdom of Naples, and his life, as a bishop, is confessed by Protestant as well as Catholic historians to have been a model of the pastoral character; but, shrinking from the responsibilities of such an office, he resigned his see in 1775, after which date he returned to his order, and continued to live in the same simple austerity which had characterized his early life. Having survived his retirement twelve years, he died at Nocera dei Pagani, Aug. 1, 1787, and was solemnly canonized in the Roman Catholic church in 1839. Liguori is one of the most voluminous and most popular of modern Catholic theological writers. His works, which extend to 70 volumes 8vo, embrace almost every department of theological learning-divinity, casuistry, exegesis, history, canon law, hagiography, asceticism, and even poetry. His correspondence also is voluminous, but is almost entirely on spiritual subjects. The principles of casuistry explained by Liguori have been received with much favor in the modern Roman schools; and in that church his moral theology, which is a modification of the so-called "probabilistic system" of the age immediately before his own, is largely used in the direction of consciences. See PROBABILISM. It would be out of place here to enter into a discussion of the exceptions which have been taken to certain portions of it on the score of morality, whether in reference to the virtue of chastity or to that of justice and of veracity. These objections apply equally to most of the casuists, and have often been the subject of controversy. Liguori's Theologia Moralis (8 vols. 8vo) has been reprinted numberless times, as also most of his ascetic works. The most complete edition of his works (in Italian and Latin) is that of Monza, 70 volumes. They have been translated entire into French and German, and in great part into English, Spanish, Polish, and other European languages.

LIGUO'RIANS, called also REDEMPTORISTS, a congregation of missionary priests founded by Liguori in 1732, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 1759. Their object is the religious instruction of the people and the reform of public morality, by periodically visiting, preaching, and hearing confessions, with the consent and under the direction of the parish clergy. Their instructions are ordered to be of the plainest and most simple character, and their ministrations are entirely without pomp or ceremonial. The congregation was founded originally in Naples, but it afterwards extended to Germany and Switzerland. In the Austrian provinces they had several houses, and were by some represented as but establishments of the suppressed Jesuits under another name. Nothing, however, could be more different than the constitution and the objects of the two orders. Since the restoration, and especially since the revolution of 1830, the Liguorians have effected an entrance into France, and several houses of the congregation have been founded in England, Ireland, and America; but their place is in great measure occupied by the more active congregation of the Lazarist or Vincentian fathers, whose objects are substantially the same, and who are much more widely spread. See PAUL, VINCENT DE, and VINCENTIAN CONGREGATION.

LIGURIA (LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, ante), in ancient geography, a part of n. Italy. As defined in the time of Augustus it embraced the territory from the Ligurian sea across the maritime Alps to the Po in the n., and from the Varus in the w. to the Macra in the east. At a very early period the Ligures possessed a larger territory, extending far into Gaul, on the western side of the Rhone. Their origin is unknown, but they were a warlike and enterprising people. They were subjugated by the Romans about 125 B.C., Liguria forming the nucleus of the Roman province of Gaul.

LIGU ́RIAN REPUBLIC, the name given to the republic of Genoa in 1797, when, in consequence of the conquests of Bonaparte in Italy, it was obliged to exchange its aristocratic for a democratic constitution. See GENOA. The name was chosen because the Genoese territory formed the principal part of ancient Liguria.

LILAC, Syringa, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order oleacea, and consisting of shrubs and small trees, with 4-cleft corolla, 2 stamens, and a 2-celled, 2-valvular capsule. The COMMON LILAC (S. vulgaris) is one of the most common ornamental shrubs cultivated in Europe and North America. It is a native of the n. of Persia, and was first brought to Vienna by Busbecq, the ambassador of Ferdinand I., to whom we also owe the introduction of the tulip into European gardens. From Vienna it soon spread, so that it is now to be found half wild in the hedges of some parts of Enrope. There are many varieties. The flowers grow in large conical panicles; are of a bluish "lilac" color, purple or white, and have a very delicious odor. The leaves are a fav orite food of cantliarides. The bitter extract of the unripe capsules has very marked tonic and febrifugal properties. The wood is fine-grained, and is used for inlaying,

turning, and the making of small articles. A fragrant oil can be obtained from it by distillation. The CHINESE LILAC (S. Chinensis) has larger flowers, but with less powerful odor, and the PERSIAN LILAC (S. Persica) has narrower leaves. Both are often planted in gardens and pleasure-grounds. There are several other species.

LILBURNE, JOHN, 1618-1657; a Protestant agitator of England. Imbibing opinions in opposition to the English church, at the age of 18 he went to Holland to procure the printing of a pamphlet against the bishops. This he aided to circulate secretly, was exposed to the authorities, tried in the court of the star-chamber, coudemned in Feb., 1637, to receive 500 lashes, to be pilloried and confined in prison, fined £500, and required to give security for good behavior. His bold courage before the judges gave him the sobriquet of "Freeborn John." Given his liberty in 1640 he placed himself at the head of his sympathizers and demanded that lord Stratford should be arraigned. He was again arrested and taken before the house of lords; but such was the pressure of public opinion in his favor that the parliament (“long parliament ") released him, and subsequently declared his punishment to have been illegal, barbarous, and tyrannical; and recompensed him for his imprisonment and injuries by a payment to him of £3,000. He joined the army of the parliament against Charles I., was taken prisoner, and would have been hung, had not the parliament's general, the duke of Essex, threatened to hang royalist prisoners in retaliation. He soon became dissatisfied with the Presbyterian leaders, and published charges and denunciations even against Cromwell. The latter procured his trial before a commission, by whom he was acquitted. Emboldened by this, he began a violent agitation against Cromwell, read in public a pamphlet entitled England's New Chains, and in consequence was committed to the Tower. Thence he poured out political pamphlets which gave him great popularity with the people. He was again brought to trial, but the pressure of popular opinion in his favor determined his acquittal. But Cromwell soon after secured his condemnation and banishment for a vicious attack on Kaslering. He then resided in Brussels and Amsterdam. After the dissolution of the "long parliament," he returned to England without permission, and Cromwell sought to imprison him in the Tower; but it ended in his remaining in England as a prisoner at large. Towards the close of his quarrelsome life he espoused the doctrines of the Friends, or Quakers. Judge Jenkins said of him: Were John Lilburne the only man living on the earth, Lilburne would dispute with John, and John with Lilburne." An account of his trials, entitled Truth's Victory over Tyrants, was published in 1649.

LILIA CEÆ, a natural order of endogenous plants, containing about 1200 known species. They are most numerous in the warmer parts of the temperate zones. They are mostly herbaceous plants, with bulbous or tuberous, sometimes fibrous, roots; rarely shrubs or trees. The shrubby and arborescent species are mostly tropical. The stem is simple, or branching towards the top, leafless or leafy. The leaves are simple, generally narrow, sometimes cylindrical, sometimes fistular. The flowers are generally large, with 6-cleft or 6-toothed perianth; and grow singly or in spikes, racemes, umbels, heads, or panicles. The stamens are six, opposite to the segments of the perianth; the pistil has a superior 3-celled, many-seeded ovary, and a single style. The fruit is succulent or capsular; the seeds packed one upon another in two rows. This order contains many of our finest garden, green-house, and hot-house flowers, as lilies, tulips, dog'stooth violet, lily of the valley, tuberose, crown imperial, and other fritillaries, hyacinths, gloriosa superba; many species useful for food, as garlic, orion, leak, and other species of allium, asparagus, the quamash or biscuit root (camassia esculenta) of North America, the ti (dracana terminalis or cordyline ti) of the South seas, etc.; many species valuable in medicine, as squill, aloes, etc.; and some valuable for the fiber which their leaves yield, as New Zealand flax, and the species of bowstring hemp or sanseviera.-This natural order has been the subject of a number of splendid works, among which may be particularly named Redoute's Les Liliacées (8 vols. Paris, 1802-16).

LILLE (formerly L'ISLE, "the island;" Flemish, Ryssel), an important manufacturing t. and fortress in the n. of France, chief town of the department of Nord, is situated on the Deule, in a level, fertile district, 140 m. n.n.e. of Paris, and 62 m. s.e. of Calais. The streets are wide, the squares imposing, and the houses, which are mostly in the modern style, well built. The principal buildings and institutions are the medical school, the lyceum, the bourse, and the palace of Richebourg, now the Hotel de-Ville, in which is the school of art, with a famous collection of drawings by Raphael, Michael, and other masters. Lille derives its name from that of the castle around which the town originally arose, and which from its position in the midst of marshes was called Isla. It was founded in 1007 by Baldwin, the fourth count of Flanders, and has suffered greatly from frequent sieges. Of these, the most recent, and perhaps the most severe, took place in 1708 and 1792. On the former occasion, during the war of the Spanish succession, the garrison capitulated to the allies, after a bombardment of 120 days; on the latter, the Austrians, after a terrific bombardment, were obliged to raise the siege. Lille is an important military center. It is also the seat of extensive and thriving manufactures. The goods principally manufactured are linen, hosiery, gloves, blankets, lace, Lille thread, and tulle. The town contains many spinning-mills, bleach-fields, sugar

Lima.

32

refineries, distilleries, tan-pits, dye-houses, etc. In the vicinity are numerous oil-mills, porcelain-factories, and glass and pottery works. Pop. '76, 137,560.

LILLEBONNE, a small t. of northern France on the river Bolbec, 40 kilometers e. of Havre; pop. 4,800; has manufactures of thread, cotton, and linen fabrics. William the conqueror gave it importance by the construction there of a château-fort. Old Roman roads diverge from it to Rouen, Paris, Evreux, and Dreux. It was a city of importance under the Romans, as attested by considerable ruins, among which are those of a theater 340 ft. long.

LILLERS, a small t. in the n. of France on the river Mare; pop. 6.600. Principal industries, the manufacture of shoes for exportation, of linens, and of beer and distilled liquors.

LILLIBURLERO, the refrain of an Irish ballad, which appeared before the revolution of 1688. and is said to have exercised a profound influence, going far to precipitate that outbreak. The words "lilliburlero and bullen-a-lah" (Irish) are said to have been employed by the Irish Roman Catholics during the Protestant massacres of 1641. The ballad in question, alleged to have been written by lord Wharton, took up these words and employed them to fire the hearts of the king's soldiers.

LIL LIPUT, the name of a fabulous kingdom described by Swift in Gulliver's Travels, of which the inhabitants are not greater in size than an ordinary man's finger. The term Lilliputian has come into common use as a designation of anything very diminutive.

LIL'LO, GEORGE, 1693-1739; an English dramatist of vigorous style and of a moral tendency in advance of his time; the representative of the domestic manuers and tastes of the middle classes. His plays of Silvia and George Barnwell both appeared in 1731. The latter was extremely popular, and greatly delighted queen Caroline. It was imitated by Saurin and played in France under the title of Beverly. His other works are the Christian Ilero; Marina; and Elmerick. These works were collected and published in 2 vols. 12mo. in 1772.

LILLY, JOHN. Sec LYLY, ante.

LILLY, WILLIAM, an English astrologer, b. at Diseworth, in Leicestershire, in 1602. Whilst yet a young man, he was employed as book-keeper by a merchant in London, who could not write, and on his employer's death married his widow, with whom he obtained a fortune of £1000 sterling. He betook himself to the study of astrology, particularly the Ars Notoria of Cornelius Agrippa, and soon acquired a considerable fame as a caster of nativities, and a predictor of future events. In 1634 he is said to have obtained permission from the dean of Westminster to search for hidden treasure in Westminster abbey, but was driven from his midnight work by a storm, which he ascribed to hellish powers. From 1644 till his death he annually issued his Merlinus Anglicus Junior, containing vaticinations, to which no small importance was attached by many. In the civil war he attached himself to the parliamentary party, and was actually sent in 1648, with another astrologer, to the camp at Colchester, to encourage the troops, which service he performed so well that he received a pension for it, which, however, he only retained two years. Nevertheless, he made a small fortune by his "art" during the commonwealth, and was able to purchase an estate. After the restoration, he was for some time imprisoned, on the supposition that he was acquainted with the secrets of the republicans; but being set free, he retired to the country. He was again apprehended on suspicion of knowing something of the causes of the great fire of London in 1666. He died June 9, 1681, at his estate at Hersham. Lilly wrote nearly a score of works on his favorite subject. They are of no value whatever, except to illustrate the credulity or knavery of their author.

LILY, a genus of plants of the natural order liliacea, containing a number of species much prized for the size and beauty of their flowers. The perianth is bell shaped, and its segments are often bent back at the extremity. The root is a scaly bulb, the stem herbaceous and simple, often several feet high, bearing the flowers near its summit.The WHITE LILY (L. candidum), a native of the Levant, has been long cultivated in gardens, and much sung by poets. It has large, erect, pure white flowers, as much prized for their fragrance as for their beauty.-The orange lily (L. bulbiferum), a native of the s. of Europe, with large, erect, orange-colored flowers, is a well-known and very showy ornament of the flower-garden. The martagon or Turk's cup lily (L. martagon), a native of the s. of Europe, and allied species with verticillate leaves and drooping flowers, are also common in gardens. The tiger lily (L. tigrinum) is a native of China, remarkable for the axillary buds on the stem; and some very fine species are natives of North America, as L. superbum, which grows in marshes in the United States, has a stem 6 to 8 ft. high, and reflexed orange flowers, spotted with black; L. Canadense, etc. Several very fine species have been introduced from Japan, as L. Japonicum, L speciosum, and L. lancifolium.-The bulbs of L. pomponium, L. martagon, and L. Kamtschacense, are roasted and eaten in Siberia. That of L. candidum loses its acridity by drying, roasting, or boiling; when cooked, it is viscid, pulpy, and sugary, and is eaten in some parts of the east.-Lilies are generally propagated by offset bulbs. A single scale of the bulb will, however, suffice to produce a new plant, or even part of a scale, of

Lima.

which skillful gardeners avail themselves.-The name lily is often popularly extended to flowers of other genera of the same order, and even of allied orders.

LILY, GIGANTIC, Doryanthes excelsa, of Australia, a plant of the natural order amaryllidere, with flowering stem 10 or 14, sometimes 20 ft. high, bearing at top a cluster of large crimson blossoms. The stem is leafy, but the largest leaves are near the root. This plant is found both on the mountains and the sea-coast of New South Wales. It is of splendid beauty. The fiber of its leaves has been found excellent for ropes and for textile fabrics.

LILYBE UM. See MARSALA, ante.

LILYE, or LILLY, WILLIAM, 1466-1523; a celebrated English grammarian; graduated at Oxford, and immediately afterwards traveled in the orient to perfect his knowledge of the Greek language. He passed five years at the ancient city of Rhodes, then resided in Rome, and returned to London in 1509. There he opened the first public school for teaching the dead languages. He became, soon after, the first master of St. Paul's school, and in the intervals of his duties edited and published a work known as Lilly's Grammar; to which dean Colet, the great Erasmus, and cardinal Wolsey each contributed a part. It was a quarto volume, published in London in 1513, and is said to have passed through more editions than any similar work.

LILY OF THE VALLEY, Convallaria, a genus of plants of the natural order liliacea, having terminal racemes of flowers: a white, bell-shaped, or tubular 6-cleft or 6-toothed perianth; a 3-celled germen, with two ovules in each cell, and a succulent fruit.—The species commonly known as the lily of the valley (C. majalis), the Maiblume or Mayflower of the Germans, grows in bushy places and woods in Europe, the north of Asia, and North America, and has a leafless scape, with a raceme of small flowers turned to one side. It is a universal favorite on account of its pleasing appearance, the fragrance of its flowers, and the early season at which they appear. It is therefore very often cultivated in gardens, and forced to earlier flowering in hot-houses. Varieties are in cultivation with red, variegated, and double flowers. The berries, the root, and the flowers have a nauseous, bitter, and somewhat acrid taste, and purgative and diuretic effects. The smell of the flowers, when in large quantity and in a close apartment, is narcotic. Dried and powdered they become a sternutatory. The esteemed eau d'or of the French is a water distilled from the flowers.-Allied to lily of the valley is Solomon's seal (q.v.).

LIMA, the capital of the republic of Peru, stands on the Rimac, from whose name its own is corrupted, in lat. 12° 3' s.. and long. 77° 5' west. It is 6 m. distant from its port, on the Pacific, Callao, with which it is connected by a railway. Including its suburban villages, ten in number, it contains ('76) 100.073 inliabitants. Lima is of Spanish origin, and its generally magnificent public buildings entitle it to rank as the handsomest city of South America. At one time the grand entrepôt for the west coast of the continent, it still carries on a large trade, importing cottons, woolens, silks, hardware, wines, and brandy; and exporting silver, copper, bark, soap, vicuna wool, chinchilla skins, niter, sugar, etc. The temperature is agreeable, averaging 68.1° in winter and 77.6° in summer; and the climate is comparatively salubrious, abundant dews making up for the want of rain.

LIMA (ante). The approaches to the city are by six gates; and the principal alameda, an avenue of great beauty on the read to Callao, is one of the most striking and impressive thoroughfares on the continent. The general impression made by the city on nearing it is more in its favor than on a closer examination. At a distance, its spires and domes glitter in the sun, and its architecture. Moorish in character, gives it a very picturesque appearance. But, excepting the public buildings, the houses are low, and irregularly built, though the streets are regular and attractive. The plaza mayor, or great square, has a handsome fountain in the center, and is the principal business locality. Here are the palace of the president of Peru, the cathedral, and the archbishop's palace; the old palace of Pizarro is on the south side, and on the west is the townball. An immense amphitheater for bull-fighting is a feature of one of the alamedas. The longest side of the city, which is in the form of a triangle, extends along the bank of the river Rimac. Through the middle of almost every street a stream of water is turned each morning, designed to carry away whatever refuse collects from the houses; and this process, combined with the service of the buzzards, comprises the public scavengering of the city. The monasteries and convents of Lima, of which there were at one time a large number, have nearly all been suppressed. The convent of San Francisco, however, is a large monastic establishment, covering nearly seven acres of ground: there are also many parish churches and 22 chapels. The university of Lima was the first educational establishment of the kind in the new world. It has fallen into decay to some extent, but contains a valuable library of about 20,000 volumes. Lima was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and called Ciudad de los Reyes. It has been frequently visited by earthquakes, one of which, in 1746, destroyed many buildings. The city has recently (Jan., 1881) been captured by the Chilian forces in the process of the lamentable war between Peru and Chili.

U. K. IX-3