in the construction or maintenance of a garbage or sewage system,108 in the establishment and maintenance of streets, parks or boulevards,109 or the carrying out of any other enterprise, private or quasi private in its nature.110 346; Jenney v. City of Brooklyn, 120 N. Y. 164, 24 N. E. 274. See, also, § 957, ante. 107 Bullmaster v. City of St. Joseph, 70 Mo. App. 60; Boothe v. City of Fulton, 85 Mo. App. 16; Western Sav. Fund Soc. v. City of Philadelphia, 31 Pa. 175. See, also, § 957, ante. 108 Barney Dumping Boat Co. v. City of New York, 40 Fed. 50; City of Savannah v. Waldner, 49 Ga. 316; Town of Thorntown v. Fugate, 21 Ind. App. 537, 52 N. E. 763;. Leeds v. City of Richmond, 102 Ind. 372; Cabot v. Kingman, 166 Mass. 403, 44 N. E. 344, 33 L. R. A. 45; Stock v. City of Boston, 149 Mass. 410, 21 N. E. 871; Ostrander v. City of Lansing, 111 Mich. 693, 70 N. W. 332; Webb v. Board of Health of Detroit, 116 Mich. 516; Fink v. City of St. Louis, 71 Mo. 52; Donohoe v. Kansas City, 136 Mo. 657, 38 S. W. 571. But see City of South Bend v. Turner, 156 Ind. 418, 60 N. E. 271, 54 L. R. A. 396; Condict v. Jersey City, 46 N. J. Law, 157; Missano v. City of New York, 160 N. Y. 123, 54 N. E. 744. Rule applies to duty of cleaning streets. See, also, State v. Dickson, 124 N. C. 871; Ostrom v. City of San Antonio (Tex. Civ. App.) 60 S. W. 591. See §§ 958 et seq., ante. 109 Waldron v. City of Haverhill, 143 Mass. 582, 10 N. E. 481; Norton v. City of New Bedford, 166 Mass. 48, 43 N. E. 1034; Butman v. City of Newton, 179 Mass. 1, 60 N. E. 401; Deane v. Inhabitants of Randolph, 132 Mass. 475; Peters v. Town of Fergus Falls, 35 Minn. 549; City of Omaha v. Croft, 60 Neb. 57, 82 N. W. 120; Mahon v. City of New York, 10 Misc. 664, 31 N. Y. Supp. 676; Scott v. City of New York, 27 App. Div. 240, 50 N. Y. Supp. 191; Johns v. City of Cincinnati, 45 Ohio St. 278, 12 N. E. 801; Sprague v. Tripp, 13 R. I. 38. But see Jansen v. City of Waltham, 166 Mass. 344, 44 N. E. 339; Taggart v. City of Fall River, 170 Mass. 325, 49 N. E. 622; Tate v. City of Greensboro, 114 N. C. 392, 19 S. E. 767, 24 L. R. A. 671. See § 957, ante. 110 Hooe v. Mayor of Alexandria, 1 Cranch, C. C. 98, Fed. Cas. No. 6,667; City of Philadelphia v. Gavagnin (C. C. A.) 62 Fed. 617, affirming 59 Fed. 303. A city, which pursuant to its charter powers engages in the business of towing vessels for profit, is liable for the negligence of its tugs so employed. McCord v. City of Pueblo, 5 Colo. App. 48, 36 Pac. 1109; Arline v. Laurens County, 77 Ga. 249, 2 S. E. 833; City Council of Augusta v. Lombard, 99 Ga. 282, 25 S. E. 722; City Council of Augusta v. Owens, 111 Ga. 464, 36 S. E. 830. Stone quarry. City of Savannah v. Cullens, 38 Ga. 344; City Council of Augusta v. Hudson, 88 Ga. 599, 15 S. E. 678. A city is liable for defects in a bridge kept by it for profit. City of Pekin v. McMahon, 154 Ill. 141, 39 N. E. 484, 27 L. R. A. 206; City of Winfield v. Peeden, 8 Kan. App. 671, 57 Pac. 131. Gravel bank. Fennimore v. City of New (b) Quasi corporations. The strict rule of nonliability in respect to public quasi corporations, as stated in sections 954 and 955, must not be forgotten and these bodies will not be held responsible for those acts of their officers and agents which, when done by an officer or agent of a municipal corporation proper, would create a liability.111 § 974. Liability for acts of licensee. Where a public corporation grants, under authority of law, a license, privilege or franchise for the use of its public ways to Orleans, 20 La. Ann. 124; Anne Arundel County Com'rs v. Duckett, 20 Md. 468; Coughlan v. City of Cambridge, 166 Mass. 268; Collins V. Inhabitants of Greenfield, 172 Mass. 78, 51 N. E. 454; Whitfield v. Town of Carrollton, 50 Mo. App. 98; Bates v. Holbrook, 67 App. Div. 25, 73 N. Y. Supp. 417, reversing 35 Misc. 342, 71 N. Y. Supp. 1013. Construction of subway in New York City. Walker V. Wasco County (Or.) 19 Pac. 81, following Pruden v. Grant Co., 12 Or. 308, 7 Pac. 308; Wagner v. City of Portland, 40 Or. 389, 60 Pac. 985, 67 Pac. 300; Buchanan v. Town of Barre, 66 Vt. 129, 23 L. R. A. 488. But see Mahoney v. City of Boston, 171 Mass. 427, 50 N. E. 939. City of Boston not responsible for injuries received by workmen because of the negligence of the foreman in charge of the derrick where both were employed in the building of a subway. Ewen v. City of Philadelphia, 194 Pa. 548, 45 Atl. 339. See 957, ante. 111 Smith V. Carlton County Com'rs, 46 Fed. 340; Scales v. Ordinary of Chattahoochee County, 41 Ga. 225; McDonald v. Village of Lockport, 28 Ill. App. 157; Symonds V. Clay County Sup'rs, 71 Ill. 355; Abb. Corp. Vol. III — 18. Cooney v. Town of Hartland, 95 Ill. 516; Smith v. Allen County Com'rs, 131 Ind. 116, 30 N. E. 949; Schnurr V. Huntington County Com'rs, 22 Ind. App. 188, 53 N. E. 425; Rock Island Lumber & Mfg. Co. v. Elliott, 59 Kan. 42, 51 Pac. 894. A board of education not liable in absence of express statute to that effect. Anne Arundel County Com'rs v. Duckett, 20 Md. 468. A liability may result from a statutory provision. Anne Arundel County Com'rs v. Duvall, 54 Md. 350; Clark v. Easton, 146 Mass. 43, 14 N. E. 795; Lemon v. City of Newton, 134 Mass. 476; Chase v. Middleton, 123 Mich. 647, 82 N. W. 612; McConnell v. Dewey, 5 Neb. 385; Downes v. Town of Hopkinton, 67 N. H. 456, 40 Atl. 433. A town is not responsible for the negligence of a highway surveyor in preparing a highway. Napier v. City of Brooklyn, 41 App. Div. 274, 58 N. Y. Supp. 506; People v. Westchester County, 57 App. Div. 135, 67 N. Y. Supp. 981; Hamilton County Com'rs v. Mighels, 7 Ohio St. 109; Com. v. Brice, 22 Pa. 211; Walton v. Travis County, 5 Tex. Civ. App. 525, 24 S. W. 352; Harrison v. City of Columbus, 44 Tex. 418; Florida v. Galveston County (Tex. Civ. App.) 55 private persons, the usual rule obtains that it will not be liable for the acts of such grantee though they may be negligent and result in injury.112 Liability for duty imposed on officer. The duty, a negligent performance or omission to perform which has resulted in injury, may be one which has been by law imposed as a ministerial one upon designated officials and the rule obtains that no liability can attach under these circumstances to the public corporation,113 or the corporation with which they are officially connected.114 S. W. 50. See, also, note 35 Am. & Eng. Corp. Cas. 94. Authorities cited under note 20, 2d paragraph, § 955. 112 City of Denver v. Sherret (C. C. A.) 88 Fed. 226; Town of Idaho Springs v. Filteau, 10 Colo. 105, 14 Pac. 48; Sorenson v. Town of Greeley, 10 Colo. 369, 15 Pac. 803; City of Chicago v. Ramsey, 90 Ill. App. 271; Schnurr v. Huntington County Com'rs, 22 Ind. App. 188, 53 N. E. 425; Michigan City v. Boeckling, 122 Ind. 39, 23 N. E. 518; Lincoln v. City of Boston, 148 Mass. 578, 20 N. E. 329, 3 L. R. A. 257; Fowler v. Inhabitants of Gardner, 169 Mass. 505, 48 N. E. 619; Burford v. City of Grand Rapids, 53 Mich. 98. A city is not made liable for injuries inflicted by coasters on a public street through the designation of that particular street for that purpose. Kornetzski v. City of Detroit, 94 Mich. 341, 53 N. W. 1106; Hunt v. City of New York, 109 N. Y. 134, 16 N. E. 320; Terry v. City of Richmond, 94 Va. 537, 27 S. E. 429, 38 L. R. A. 834; Hubbell v. City of Viroqua, 67 Wis. 343, 30 N. W. 847. But see City Council of Augusta v. Cone, 91 Ga. 714, 17 S. E. 1005; Speir v. City of Brooklyn, 139 N. Y. 6, 21 L. R. A. 641. A ctiy is liable for damages to private property caused by discharge of fireworks duly licensed. See, also, note on liability for authorizing a dangerous nuisance such as fireworks: 16 L. R. A. 395, 21 L. R. A. 641, 43 L. R. A. 295. 113 Case v. Hulsebush, 122 Ala. 212, 26 So. 155; Waller v. City of Dubuque, 69 Iowa, 541; McCarthy v. Bauer, 3 Kan. 237; Quincy Tp. v. Sheehan, 48 Kan. 620, 29 Pac. 1084; Layman v. Beeler, 24 Ky. L. R. A. 174, 67 S. W. 995. There may be a joint liability. Breen v. Field, 157 Mass. 277, 31 N. E. 1075; Gray v. City of Detroit, 113 Mich. 657, 71 N. W. 1107; Hannon v. St. Louis County, 62 Mo. 313; Sutton V. Board of Police of Carroll County, 41 Miss. 236; Martin v. City of Brooklyn, 1 Hill (N. Y.) 545; Ham v. City of New York, 37 N. Y. Super. Ct. (5 J. & S.) 458; Maxmilian v. City of New York, 62 N. Y. 160; New York & B. Sawmill & Lumber Co. v. City of Brooklyn, 71 N. Y. 580; Alcorn v. City of Philadelphia, 44 Pa. 348. But see Riggin v. Brown, 59 Fed. 1005. Members of the board of public works authorized by Md. Code, art. 72, are not personally liable for injuries to workmen in their employ. Lundy v. Delmas, 104 Cal. 655, 38 Pac. 445, 26 L. R. A. 651. Members of board of regents of state university are not individually liable. Worden v. § 975. Independent contractor. The same rule that governs the liability of a private person for the act of an independent contractor applies to a public corporation though modified by the character of the work done. If governmental in its character, under no circumstances can there be a liability, except as one may be prescribed by law. If not of this nature, then the rule above applies.115 This it will be remembered, is substantially, that where the work is performed by an independent contractor who has full charge of the work, the employment and discharge of men and the use of agencies, no liability can arise.116 The principle operates even where the contract provides that the work is to be done to the satisfaction of designated officials who, in pursuance of such a provision, supervise and pass upon the work from time to time.117 If, however, the authorities retain full or partial control of the work both Witt, 4 Idaho, 404, 39 Pac. 1114. County commissioners not personally liable for injuries received through defective highways. Packard v. Voltz, 94 Iowa, 277, 62 N. W. 757. County officers not personally liable when no liability attaches to a county. O'Leary v. Board of Fire & Water Com'rs, 79 Mich. 281, 44 N. W. 608, 7 L. R. A. 170. 114 Hennessey v. City of New Bedford, 153 Mass. 260, 26 N. E. 999. 115 Foster v. City of Chicago, 96 Ill. App. 4; City of Bloomington v. Wilson, 14 Ind. App. 476, 43 N. E. 37; Fuller v. City of Grand Rapids, 105 Mich. 529, 63 N. W. 530; Reed V. Allegheny City, 79 Pa. 300. 116 Foster v. City of Chicago, 197 Ill. 264, 64 N. E. 322, affirming 96 Ill. App. 4; City of Evansville v. Senhenn, 151 Ind. 42, 47 N. E. 634, 51 N. E. 88, 41 L. R. A. 728; Green v. Eden, 24 Ind. App. 583, 56 N. E. 240; Staldter v. City of Huntington, 153 Ind. 354, 55 N. E. 88; Eginoire V. Union County, 112 Iowa, 558, 84 N. W. 758; Barry v. City of St. Louis, 17 Mo. 121; Harrington v. Village of Lansingburgh, 110 N. Y. 145, 17 N. E. 728; Carroll v. City of New York, 159 N. Y. 559, 54 N. E. 1089, affirming 29 App. Div. 420, 51 N. Y. Supp. 620; Uppington v. City of New York, 165 N. Y. 222, 59 N. E. 91, 53 L. R. A. 550. Parties doing work for a city under contract will be regarded as independent contractors though the city reserved the right to discharge incompetent workmen. White v. City of Philadelphia, 201 Pa. 512, 51 Atl. 332; Reed v. Allegheny City, 79 Pa. 300; Erie School Dist. v. Fuess, 98 Pa. 600. But see City of Logansport v. Dick, 70 Ind. 65; City of Glasgow v. Gillenwaters, 23 Ky. L. R. 2375, 67 S. W. 381; Pearson v. Zable, 78 Ky. 170. 117 Sewall v. St. Paul, 20 Minn. (Gil. 459) 511; Pack v. City of New York, 8 N. Y. (4 Seld.) 222; Uppington v. City of New York, 165 N. Y. 222; 59 N. E. 91, 53 L. R. A. 550; City in respect to the manner of its construction or the employment and discharge of men or the use of appliances,118 or if the plan of work is defective,119 even though the work is actually carried on by an independent contractor; a public corporation will be held liable for damages resulting from defective machinery or negligent work on the part of one performing the contract. Where an independent contractor is using the public streets, many cases hold it is still the duty of the municipality to give notice of their defective or dangerous condition for travel, and if injuries occur through failure to do this, a city will be liable.120 976. Defense of fellow-servant. In the carrying out of any work in respect to which any part thereof, a liability may arise, the defense of common employment or fellow-servant is open equally to public corporations as well as to private persons or corporations and to the extent which may be prescribed by law.121 § 977. Surface waters. In respect to the liability of public corporations for acts done affecting surface waters, either in the construction of public im of Erie v. Caulkins, 85 Pa. 247. But see City of Chicago v. Dermody, 61 Ill. 431. 118 De Baker v. Southern Cal. R. Co., 106 Cal. 257, 39 Pac. 610. A liability also attaches where the damage might have been prevented by the exercise of reasonable prudence in respect to the plan and erection of the public work. City of Chicago v. Joney, 60 Ill. 383; City of Chicago v. Dermody, 61 Ill. 431; Brooks v. Inhabitants of Somerville, 106 Mass. 271; Broadwell V. Kansas City, 75 Mo. 213; Schumacher v. City of New York, 40 App. Div. 320, 57 N. Y. Supp. 968; City of Ironton v. Kelley, 38 Ohio St. 50; City of Harrisburg v. Saylor, 187 Pa. 216; Stork v. City of Philadelphia, 199 V. Le 119 City of Springfield Claire, 49 Ill. 476; City of East St. Louis v. Murphy, 89 Ill. App. 22; City of Louisville v. Shanahan, 22 Ky. L. R. 163, 56 S. W. 808; Pearson v. Zable, 78 Ky. 170. 120 City of Indianapolis v. Marold, 25 Ind. App. 428, 58 N. E. 512. See, also, §§ 1004 and 1009, post. 121 McDermott v. City of Boston, 133 Mass. 349; Toledo v. Cone, 41 Ohio St. 149; Flynn V. City of |