VI. Corrected List of Cargoes to Europe, by Vessels which sailed from the Port during this Official

Year 1831-32.

Currency, Weights, Language, &c.-The currency and weights are simple and convenient. Merchants' accounts are kept in Spanish dollars, divided into 100 parts, represented either by Dutch doits, or by English copper coins of the same value. The weights in use (and almost every thing is sold by weight, as in China) are the Chinese picul of 100 catties, or 133 lbs. avoirdupois. Rice (the produce of Siam and the Archipelago) and salt are sold by the coyan of 40 piculs. Gold dust is sold by a Malay weight called the bungkal, which weighs two Spanish dollars, or 832 grains Troy. Bengal rice, wheat, and pulses of the same country, are sold by the bag, containing 2 Bengal maunds, or 1644 lbs. avoirdupois. Piece goods, &c. are sold by the corge or score. English weights and measures are frequently used in reference to European commodities. The mode of transacting business among the European merchants is simple and efficient. Instead of trusting their affairs to native agents, as in other parts of India, they transact them in person, with the occasional assistance of a Chinese creole, as an interpreter and broker. The European merchants transact business on their own account; but a great deal of their employment consists in acting as agents for houses in London, Liverpool, Glasgow, Amsterdam, Antwerp, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Canton, and Batavia. They are also agents for various insurance offices at Calcutta and elsewhere, and policies of insurance to any extent may be effected without difficulty. The language of commercial intercourse, where any of the natives of the East are concerned, is universally Malay,-a simple and easy dialect, of which all the resident merchants have a sufficient acquaintance for the transacting of ordinary business. A newspaper, the Singapore Chronicle, is published once a week, and contains a price current, an account of arrivals and departures of shipping, and an official detail of all the exports and imports of the preceding week. The administration of justice is entirely English, there being a recorder's court for the settlement, in common with the two neighbouring ones of Penang and Malacca.

(Statement of the Value of the Import and Export Trade of Singapore, with the undermentioned Prices, in the Years 1836-37 and 1837-38.

Eastern Ports trading with Singapore.—As every thing that relates to the trade of the East is now becoming of the first importance to commercial men, we make no apology for

laying before the reader the following statements, taken from a late number of the Singapore Free Press, respecting the Eastern ports from which native ships arrive at Singapore. They are mostly all very imperfectly known even to residents at the settlement; and the names of some of them may now, perhaps, be learned for the first time by the English reader. Commencing with ports to the northward, those in China, from which junks (which are included among the native craft) arrive here, are, CANTON, TEW-CHEW, CHUNGLIM, and MACAO, in Canton province; AMOY and CHINCHEW in Fokien; and SEANGHAE and NINGPO, large commercial cities, in Chekeang province. They come also from HAILAM or HAINAN, which is subject to Canton. The average number of these vessels (some of which are of large burden, 300 to 400 tons), is 20 arriving here annually. The cargoes they bring are, however, only chiefly intended for the consumption of the numerous Chinese who are settled in Dutch and English colonies in these parts, as well as in the native states, and are re-exported thence by smaller vessels, to places where they may be mostly required. The only articles they bring, in any way required by Europeans, are raw silks, nankeens, and teas. These vessels likewise convey a large number of emigrants from China every year, probably from 4,000 to 5,000, most of whom, however, proceed to other places soon after landing here.

The ports in Cochin-china and Cambodia, from which similar vessels arrive, are KANGKAO and LOKNOI, in Cambodia, and TURON and SAIGON, in Cochin-china Proper. Anom or Anam, from which many vessels report themselves to come, is but a general name for either Cochin-china or Tonquin. The average number of vessels arriving from these ports are 40 annually, bringing, principally, sugar, rice, oil, salt, and some other articles of minor importance. These vessels are usually smaller than the Chinese and Siamese junks.

BANKOK and CHANTIBUN are the only two ports in Siam of any note, and from these about 30 to 40 junks and topes arrive annually. They are manned and owned almost entirely by Chinese residing in Siam, and bring, chiefly, sugar, rice, oil, iron pans, sticlac, gamboge, salt, indigo, paddy, tobacco, and sapanwood.

We have had too frequent occasion to notice the depredations and cruelties which every class of vessels from the places above mentioned have suffered at the hands of pirates every year, on their way to this port, which certainly contributes to check an increase of trade with the countries they come from.

The ports on the east coast of the Peninsula are SUNGORA and CALANTAN, subject to Siam; and TRINGANU, KEMMAMAN and PAHANG, independent states. There are other ports on this coast, but of little note; namely, Doongoon, Endau, Pakoh, Sadeelee, and Teloban. The produce usually brought here by pucats and other craft from those first mentioned consists chiefly of tin, gold dust, pepper, Malay sarongs and trowsers, bees' wax, hides, elephants' teeth. Junks occasionally touch at these ports, and we sometimes have the produce of Siam and China brought here from them. The average number of craft arriving thence may be about 120 or 130 annually.

Proceeding to Borneo, we find a great variety of ports, from which vessels report themselves, of which the following is a list:- BANJERMASSIN, BALEMBANGAN, BURNAI, COTI, MEMPAWA, MATTAN, PONTIANAK, PASSEIR, PEGGOTAN, SARAWAK, SAMBAS, SUCCADANA, Brissil, Batulichen, Buncalan, Binsooloo, Calakak, Coti-ringin, Cooboo, Chinkol, Kayong, Monterado, Mukah, Mahto, Oyak, Pambuang Sadong, Sampit, Tekrang, and Tannah Darat. Some of these are well known, others only by the names reported: the locality of the latter is also but little understood. Those with which trade is principally carried on are Brunai, or Borneo Proper, Banjermassin, Pontianak, Sambas, Coti, Passier, Peggotan, and Sarawak. The productions commonly brought here from Borneo, in general, are, ratans, birds' nests, bees' wax, tortoiseshell, gold dust and diamonds, biche de mer, pearl and raw sago, camphor, rice and paddy, mother of pearl shells, garro and lakka woods, pepper, seaweed, mats, ebony and antimony ore. The number of boats arriving here annually from all the above places average about 150 or 160. The boats which come from the southern and eastern ports are commonly manned by Bugis, who seem to be the principal carriers in the Archipelago, and, next to the Chinese, are the most enterprising and industrious of the traders in these regions. They are considerably less tainted with piracy than the Malays.

CELEBES is the parent country of the Bugis, which name, though properly belonging only to one of the tribes on Celebes, is applied generally to all traders from that island, from the east and south-east coasts of Borneo, and from the islands to the southward and eastward of it. Of these tribes, by far the most considerable in point of improvement and numbers are the Bugis of Wajo or Tuwajo, a country near the centre of Celebes, and situated up the Bay of Boni. The ports in Celebes from which prahus arrive here are Bonirati, Bugis Pari-pari, Wajok, Bugis Pemana, Kailie, Macassar, Mandhar, and Sangye. They usually bring sarongs-the produce of their own looms-ratans, wax, tortoiseshell, pearl shells, seaweed, biche de mer, coffee, birds' nests, sandal and bookoo woods, and other articles of minor importance. The number of vessels arriving here from the above places average about 50 or 60 annually.

The islands to the eastward and southward of Celebes, from which the Bugis bring cargoes to this port, are chiefly Bootoon, Enday or Flores, Selayer, Timor, Booroo, Lombok, Sumbawa, Amboyna, Ceram, and even from the Aroos and Papua. The articles are the same as those from Celebes, with the addition of kayu-pooteh oil, birds of paradise, and wild nutmegs. The vessels arriving from these places may average about 30 every year.

The island of Bali, or Bally, contains several ports, from which upwards of 50 prahus annually arrive here the principal of these are Baliling, Bali Badong, Sasak, Saliparang, and Ampanan; they bring rice, oil, hides, tobacco, sarongs, wax, birds' nests, and biche de mer. In this trade, we believe, the Bugis are likewise the principal carriers.

Returning westerly, we come to Java, from various well-known ports of which upwards of 60 native craft, independently of square-rigged vessels, annually frequent this harbour, bringing the productions of that valuable and fertile island, principally rice, sugar, tobacco, cachang or peas, tamarinds, hides, cubebs, Battic handkerchiefs and salendongs. We go next to SUMATRA, from the various ports on the east coast of which the greatest number of native craft frequenting this port arrive, amounting on an average to between 300 to 400 annually. The names of these ports are, Acheen, Apong, Assahan, Batu bara, Bukitbatu, Billah, Ayeretam, Čampar, Delli, Gawang, Indragiri, Jambie, Kitaman, Langkat, Lampung, Manda, Merba, Pulo Padang, Panai, Palembang, Rantow, Rittee, Siac, Subee, and Tabing Tingie. The greatest portion of boats come from Apong, Manda, Rantow, and Tabing Tingie, with raw sago. The next in number are those from Campar, Jambie, and Siac, bringing coffee, rice, wax, rattans, ivory, gold dust, benzoin, dragons' blood, lakka wood, and a few other articles. From Palembang come the lacquered basons and ceeree boxes so much in request among natives; and the best ratan mats are made there. The coast near Siac furnishes in great abundance the Trubo, or fishroe

The places mentioned in this statement, of which the names are in capitais, are either well known to Europeans by long report or actual intercourse; while those in italics remain, so far as we have ascertained, not only unvisited by, but are only recently known by name to them: few or none of them earlier than the foundation of this settlement.

so universally used, and affords our principal supply of sago, which has now become an article of commerce at Singapore.

The names of the petty places on the west side of the Malayan Peninsula, opposite the Sumatra shore, between this and Penang, are-Batu Pahat, Benook, Beladong, Dooyong, Brooas, Muar, Padang, Poontian, and Panghie; while the principal ports, besides Malacca and her dependencies, are:-Perak, Salengore, Lingin, and Lookoot. From the former very few articles, and those only of trifling value, are brought here, consisting chiefly of fowls, cocoa nuts, paddy, fruit, &c.; but the other ports all furnish tin in large quantities, besides several other articles of less importance. The whole of this coast, however, bears a bad name for piracy. The number of prahus arriving here from all the places above named amounts to about 100 every year.

Of the neighbouring islands, RHIO is the one with which we carry on the most extensive and constant trade; the number of boats or rather trips of a regular set of Chinese boats, called sampan pucats, employed in the trade, being about 300 every year. They bring chiefly pepper and gambier, the produce of Bintang. From LINGIN, or LINGA, also, we have upwards of 70 or 80 boats arriving annually, bringing a great variety of useful produce, but principally pepper, tin, ratans, &c. BILLITON sends about 25 boats yearly, which bring biche de mer, seaweed, tortoiseshell, wax, &c.

BUNGORAN (or Great Natunas) and SEANTAN (or N. Anambas) are the next in importance, from which 30 or 40 vessels trade with this settlement. The other islands are-Pulo Awore, Benawang, Condore, Carimons, Jamaja, (or S. Anambas), Pulo Laut, Laboo, Leboc, Meppar, Nongsa, Sarassan, Sinkip, Soobie, Tajam, Timblan, Timiang, Tingih, Trong, Carimata, Ungaran, and some others.

Piracy in the Eastern Seas.-We regret to have to state that piracy has been of late exceedingly frequent in the seas to the eastward of the Straits of Malacca, and even in the Straits themselves. It has always, it is true, prevailed to a less or greater extent in the Eastern Seas; but latterly the number of pirates has rapidly increased, and they have prosecuted their depredations with a boldness and success that require immediate attention. In so far as we can judge from the statements in the Singapore and Canton papers, we seem, to say the least of it, to have manifested the most singular indifference to the spread of this great and growing evil. In 1824, we bound ourselves by treaty with the Dutch to co-operate with them for the suppression of piracy in the Eastern Seas. It is affirmed that, until very recently, we did little or nothing towards the fulfilment of this engagement, though we are far more interested in the suppression of piracy than any other people. Hitherto the trade of Singapore has chiefly suffered from piratical attacks; but, besides waylaying the smaller junks and ships of the Chinese, Siamese, &c., the pirates, emboldened by impunity, have recently attacked some British ships in the Straits of Malacca, and have actually captured some ships in the seas more to the eastward, inflicting the most horrid barbarities on the unhappy passengers and crews. The Andromache ship of war destroyed in June, 1836, a nest of pirates; but, until the naval force in the seas in question be considerably strengthened, and, especially, till some armed steamboats be sent to the assistance of the other vessels, the nuisance will not be materially diminished, much less suppressed. It would really seem, from the little attention that the subject has attracted in this country, as if it were imagined that the trade of the Eastern Seas is of little or no value. But we are within the mark when we affirm, that from ten to twelve millions' worth of British property (including the trade between India and Canton) is annually conveyed through the Straits of Malacca, and the other Eastern Seas infested by pirates. The trade from England to China, already of vast importance, and increasing more rapidly perhaps, than any other department of our commerce, is wholly carried on through the channels referred to; and, as we do not hesitate to send powerful squadrons to secure far less valuable interests in other quarters, it is not easy to see why we should not send some half-dozen steamers to protect this great and growing trade, as well as that which we carry on with the Philippine Islands, New South Wales, &c., from the depredations of a piratical banditti. Nothing but the employment of steamers will be able effectually to abate the evil of piracy. The infinite number of small islands in the Eastern Seas, the difficulty of their navigation, and our little acquaintance with any but the principal lines of intercourse, afford the greatest facilities for the escape of pirates from ordinary cruisers. But steam ships could follow them into their haunts; and the pirates would not be able to escape from them, as they frequently do from sailing vessels, by taking to their oars while their pursuers are becalmed. Except when defending our own shores, the navy is never so legitimately employed as in the defence and extension of commerce. Its protection is one of the most important duties which government has to discharge; and, considering the immense naval force at our disposal, it may well excite astonishment that piracy in the Eastern Seas-one of the great highways by which commerce is carried onshould have been allowed to attain to such a magnitude, and that the reiterated complaints of the merchants and others, who have suffered by its prevalence, should have been so little attended to. A very little outlay on the part of government might make, in so far at least as piracy is concerned, the navigation of the Eastern Seas quite as safe as that of the Channel; and the advantages thence resulting to our trade would, in a very short period, far more than countervail the little sacrifice required at the outset.

Besides putting down piracy in the Eastern Seas, government should take the necessary measures for obtaining accurate information with respect to them, and the ports and countries to which they afford access. We know very little indeed of many, or rather, we should say, of most, of the islands to the east of Malacca; and yet several of them are of great extent, and they all abound in valuable products; and might, it is probable, were we better acquainted with their ports and capabilities, furnish the means of carrying on an extensive and

advantageous commerce. Had utility been at all attended to in such matters, the exploration of New Guinea, and of the seas and numberless islands in its vicinity, would have taken precedence of many late expeditions.

The following paragraph, taken from the Canton Repository for March, 1836, corroborates what has been now stated::

"The value of the trade which annually passes through the Chinese Sea, and the number of persons employed in it, present a striking contrast to the paucity of the means of protection afforded us from our father-lands.' The number of British vessels that arrived in China during 1834 was 156. The total of British trade for the year 1833-34, opium included, was about 46,953,586 dollars; and that for 1834-35 was still greater. The number of American vessels which arrived in China during 1833-34 was 80, and the total of the trade is estimated at 19,775,003 dollars; the number of vessels, and total of imports and exports for 1834-35, were nearly the same amount. The number of Dutch vessels that come to this port we cannot state; but the total of the Netherlands trade with China, in 1829-30, was 8,026,243 dollars. Besides these, there is also a considerable amount of Portuguese, Spanish, French, Hamburgh, Danish, and Swedish trade annually. The trade of Manilla, already amounting to several millions, is on the increase. The number of square-rigged vessels that imported to Singapore during 1834-35 was 517, which exceeded any former year; that of native craft was 1484, which is less than in either of the two preceding years. The number of Dutch, foreign, and native vessels which cleared from Java in 1833 was 1720, with a tonnage of 199,193 tons.

"While such is the annual amount of trade carried on in these seas, employing in the foreign vessels more than 10,000 seamen, what care have our governments shown for its protection? Not one of his Brittanic Majesty's ships is stationed in the Chinese Sea; not one is yet stationed even at Singapore, though an occasional visitor makes a sweep among the pirates. The Americans have done nothing here since the bloody affair of Quallah Batoo; it is said, however, that these seas are henceforth to be one of the stations for the American navy. A wide range, indeed, will two or three small men-of-war have from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan! The Portuguese here, we understand, have no naval armament whatever. It is long since a French man-of-war has visited these seas. The Spaniards at Manilla have a number of small craft called pontines, for the destruction of the piratical Malays who infest the sea to the southward of Luconia. These are characterised by a writer in a late number of the Canton Free Press as particularly successful in the capture of shells and turtles, but most inefficient in the destruction of the pirates. The Dutch alone have done anything effectual towards the suppression, and their activity in this respect is worthy of all praise. In Java, and generally in all places contiguous to their possessions, they have either suppressed or greatly checked piracy, and, were it not the tendency of their severe and restricted government to make as many outlaws, as they destroy, no deduction need be made from their praise. They alone have systematically attempted to put down lawless misrule in these seas, and make them, what the Creator designed them to be, the highway of nations."-Sup.)

Trade of Java.-Since the article BATAVIA was printed, we have received a number of the Singapore Chronicle, containing the following account of the quantities of the principal articles exported from Java in 1830, 1831, and 1832. It shows a very rapid progress. There wants nothing but good management to render Java by far the most valuable of all the Eastern possessions belonging to any European power.

(See Journal of an Embassy to Siam and Cochin China, by John Crawfurd, Esq., chap. xix.; Return of the Population of British India, in Report of the Select Committee of the Commons, 1831; Report of the Select Committee of the Commons, for 1830; and Singapore Chronicle, passim.)

SINOPE, a town of Asia Minor, on the S. coast of the Black Sea, lat. 42° 2′ 30′′ N., lon. 35° 9′ 45′′ E. Population uncertain, probably from 8,000 to 10,000. Sinope is situated on a low narrow isthmus, connecting the high rocky promontory of Ada with the main land. Its port, which is the best on this coast, on the south side of the town, is protected from the N. and N. E. gales by the isthmus and promontory already mentioned. Ships anchor within mile of the town, in from 13 to 17 fathoms; or nearer to it, in from 5 to 7 fathoms. There is a roadstead on the north side of the isthmus, but it is open and exposed. Sinope is one of the principal stations of the Turkish fleet; and there are docks and arsenals for its accommodation and outfit. Its exports are inconsiderable, the principal being timber, salt, cordage, fish oil, &c.

In ancient times, Sinope was a city of great wealth, magnitude, and importance. It was the birthplace of Diogenes, the Cynic; and Mithridates made it the capital of his dominions. After its con quest by the Romans under Lucullus, it became the seat of a colony; and continued for a lengthened period to enjoy a good deal of consideration.

Should civilization and the arts once more revive in the ancient Pontus, and the other countries to the south of the Black Sea, the excellence of its port could not fail to restore to Sinope some portion of its former grandeur. Even now a considerable intercourse is beginning to take place with the countries E. and S. of Sinope. Diarbeker, on the Tigris, in lat. 37° 51' N., lon. 39° 53′ 45′′ E., is one of the principal seats of Eastern commerce; and caravans set out regularly from it for Aleppo, Smyrna, and Constantinople: but any one who consults a map of Asia Minor, and of the contiguous countries, will see at once that Trebisond and the neighbouring ports on the S. E. coast of the Black Sea are the natural channels through which Armenia, Koordistan, and the north-western parts of Persia may best maintain an intercourse with Europe. We shall afterwards show that the danger to vessels in the roads of Trebisond has been very much exaggerated.-(See TREBISOND.) In the event, however, of the commerce with the countries referred to becoming of any considerable importance, Sinope would be an advantageous entrepôt to which goods might be brought, and whence they might be conveyed it. proper vessels, and at proper times, to the other ports. At all events, it is of material importance

that a direct intercourse with the southern coast of the Black Sea should be established, and that the trade with it should not be carried on, as hitherto, through Odessa.-(For further particulars as to Sinope, see Tournefort, Voyage du Levant, tom. ii. pp. 202-212; and Norie's Sailing Directions for the Black Sea. See also the article TREBISOND, in this work.)

SKINS. The term is applied in commercial language to the skins of those animals, as calves, deer, goats, lambs, &c., which, when prepared, are used in the lighter works of bookbinding, the manufacture of gloves, parchments, &c.; while the term hides is applied to the skins of the ox, horse, &c., which, when tanned, are used in the manufacture of shoes, harness, and other heavy and strong articles. Lamb and kid skins are principally used in the glove manufacture; 120 skins being supposed to produce, at an average, 18 dozen pairs of gloves.

Account of the Skins imported in 1831, specifying the Countries whence they came, and the Numbers brought from each.-(Parl. Paper, No. 550. Sess. 1833.)

Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Alderney, and Man (foreign goods) Total import Quantity retained for home consumption, deducting the quantity exported subsequently to the payment of duty

1,942

5

14

7 1 13 122,151

12

3 124

678 0 18

89

58

10,735

4 3 15

3

398

10

635

2,658

4,866

4,952)

42,637 1 27 125,357 354,584 595,573 621,780 2,820,092 541,692

40,193 3 19 31,079 212,422 486,527 621,780 2,819,709) 528,206|

SLATE (ROOF), Ger. Schiefer; Fr. Ardoise; It. Lavagna, Lastra; Sp. Pizarra), a fossil or compact stone (argillaceous schistus), that may be readily split into even, smooth, thin lamina. There are several varieties of this valuable mineral, the prevailing colours being grey, blue, and brown. But the tints are very various; and slates are often marked with streaks of a different colour from the ground. Slate is principally used in the covering of houses, for which purpose it is infinitely superior to thatch or tiles, and is far less expensive than lead. Good roofing slate should not absorb water; and it should be so compact as not to be decomposed by the action of the atmosphere. When properly selected, roof slates are of almost perpetual duration; but those which are spongy and imbibe moisture speedily get covered with moss, and require, at no very distant period, to be renewed.

The use of slates in the covering of houses is entirely European. From the Hellespont to China inclusive there is not a single slated house; and this does not arise from any want of slate, which is as abundant in Asia as in Europe.

Slates carried by land have never been subjected to any duty; but those carried coastwise were, until 1831, charged with duties varying according to their size and species. The injustice of this distinction, and the impolicy of laying any duty on an article of this sort, are obvious. The revenue it produced was quite inconsiderable, not exceeding 35,000l. a year. It was repealed at the same time as the duty on coal carried coastwise.

Since the repeal of the duty, the consumption of slate has been materially increased; and it is now