RHUBARB (Du. Rhubarber; Fr. Rhubarbe, Rubarbe; It. Rabarbaro, Reo-barbaro; Sp. Ruibarbo; Rus. Rewen; Arab. Rawend; Chin. Ta-hwang), the root of a plant, a native of China and Tartary. Three varieties of rhubarb are known in the shops; viz. Russian, Turkey, and East Indian or Chinese rhubarb. The first two resemble each other in every respect. They are, in fact, the same article, being both derived from Tartary. The portion destined for the Petersburgh market being selected and sorted at Kiachta, acquires the name of Russian rhubarb; while the portion that is sent from Tartary to Smyrna and other places in Turkey, is called Turkey rhubarb. The best pieces only are sent to Petersburgh; and according to the contract with the government, on whose account it is bought, all that is rejected must be burnt; and that which is approved undergoes a second cleaning before being finally packed up for Petersburgh. The best pieces of Russian and Turkey rhubarb are roundish and perforated with a large hole, of a reddish or yellow colour on the outside, and when cut or broken exhibit a mottled texture, and alternate streaks of red and grey. Its odour is peculiar; and its taste nauseous, bitter, and astringent. It should not be porous, but rather compact and heavy. East Indian or Chinese rhubarb is in oblong flat pieces, seldom perforated; has a stronger odour, and is more nauseous to the taste than the other; it is heavier, more compact, breaks smoother, and affords a powder of a redder shade.-(Thomson's Dispensatory; Ainslie's Mat. Indica, &c.) The total quantity of rhubarb imported in 1831 amounted to 140,395 lbs. ; of which 6,901 lbs. came from Russia, and 133,462 from the East Indies. Of the quantity imported, 40,124 lbs. were retained for home consumption. The price of rhubarb in bond varies from 2s. per lb. for the inferior East Indian, to 8s. for the best Russian. RICE (Fr. Riz; It. Riso; Arab. Aruz; Hind. Chawl), one of the most valuable of the cereal grasses, the Oryza sativa of botanists. It is raised in immense quantities in India, China, and most eastern countries; in the West Indies, Central America, and the United States; and in some of the southern countries of Europe. It, in fact, occupies the same place in most intertropical regions as wheat in the warmer parts of Europe, and oats and rye in those more to the north. Forming, as it does, the principal part of the food of the most civilised and populous Eastern nations, it is more extensively consumed than any other species of grain. It is light and wholesome, but is said to contain less of the nutritive principle than wheat. When rough, or in its natural state in the husk, it is called paddy. There is an immense variety in the qualities of rice. That which is principally exported from Bengal has received the name of cargo rice. It is of a coarse reddish cast, but is sweet and large grained, and is preferred by the natives to every other sort. It is not kiln-dried, but is parboiled in earthen pots or caldrons, partly to destroy the vegetative principle, so that it may keep better, and partly to facilitate the process of husking. Patna rice is more esteemed in Europe than any other sort of rice imported from the East. It is small grained, rather long and wiry, and remarkably white. But the rice raised on the low marshy grounds of Carolina is unquestionably very superior to any brought from any part of India. The produce of lands naturally or artificially irrigated is, as far as rice is concerned, from 5 to 10 times greater than that of dry land having no command of water: and hence the vast importance of irrigation in all countries where this grain is cultivated. But it is worthy of remark, that owing to the not unfrequent occurrence of severe droughts, there is a greater variation in the crops of rice than in those of any other species of grain. Those who, like the Hindoos, depend almost entirely on it for subsistence, are, consequently, placed in a very precarious situation. There can be no doubt that famines are at once more frequent and severe in Hindostan than in any other quarter. A few years ago England was principally supplied with cleaned rice from Carolina. Latterly, however, the imports of Carolina rice have been much reduced. An improved method of separating the husk, which throws out the grain clean and unbroken, has recently been practised in this country; and as the grain, when in the husk, is found to preserve its flavour and sweetness better during a long voyage than when shelled, large quantities are now imported rough from Bengal and the United States. Unquestionably, however, the oppressive discriminating duty of 14s. a cwt. on American and other foreign cleaned rice has done more than any thing else to increase the imports of rough grain; and the fact of the duty on paddy from Bengal being only 1d. per quarter, while that on paddy from Carolina is 2s. 6d. a bushel, sufficiently accounts for the increased imports from the former. The consumption of rice increased rapidly after the reduction of the duty on the cleaned and rough grain from India in 1828. In 1830, the entries for home consumption amounted to 153,652 cwt. of cleaned, and 189,249 cwt. of rough grain. But, contrary to our anticipations in the former edition of this work, the consumption has since materially fallen off. The entries for home consumption in 1832 amounted to only 111,461 cwt. of clean, and 179,627 cwt. of rough grain, or paddy; and, during last year (1833), there was a still further decline. Mr. Cook ascribes this diminution to the reduction that has taken place in the price of wheat, which has fallen from 64s. 3d. in 1830 to 52s. 11d. in 1833. Mr. C. farther mentions that, in bad seasons, when grain is soft and damp, the millers consider it advantageous to grind a certain proportion of rice with it.-(Milburn's Orient. Com.; Ainslie's Mat. Ind., Cook's Com. of Great Britain in 1833; and private information.) The price of rice in bond in the London market, in January, 1834, was as under: RIGA, a city of European Russia, the capital of Livonia, situated on the Duna, about 9 miles from the sea, in lat. 56° 56′ 5′′ N., lon. 24° 0′ 4′′ E. Population about 47,000. Harbour.-A light-house has been erected on Fort Comet, on the western side of the mouth of the river. It has 2 lights; the first, elevated about 104 feet (English) above the level of the sea, may b seen, under favourable circumstances, at the distance of 4 leagues; and the second, elevated about 24 feet, may be seen at the distance of 2 leagues. The bar at the mouth of the river has usually from 12 to 13 feet water; and vessels drawing more than this frequently load and unload part of their cargoes by means of lighters at Bolderaa, a small town on the west side of the river, near its mouth. There is a fairway beacon without the bar, in 5 fathoms water; and within the channel, is buoyed with black and white buoys; the black being left on the right or starboard side when entering, and the white on the larboard. Vessels bound for Riga take pilots at Bolderaa, who carry them to their anchorage. No ballast is allowed to be discharged, except at Poderague. Regulations as to clearing, &c. similar to those at Petersburgh.-(Coulier sur les Phares, 2d ed.; and Regulations published by the Russian Authorities.) Trade.-Owing to its advantageous situation near the mouth of a great navigable river, the trade of Riga is very extensive; being, of the Russian towns on the Baltic, in this respect second only to Petersburgh. The trade is chiefly carried on by foreign merchants, particularly by the English. The principal exports are corn, hemp and flax, linseed, iron, timber, masts, leather, tallow, &c.; the imports are salt, cloth and cotton stuffs, silks, wine, sugar, coffee, and groceries of all sorts, indigo, dye woods, salted herrings, &c. The mast trade is very extensive. The burghers of Riga send persons who are called mast brokers into the provinces to mark the trees, which are purchased standing. They grow mostly in the districts which border on the Dnieper, are sent up that river to a landing place, transported 30 versts to the Duna, when, being formed into rafts of from 50 to 200 pieces, they descend the stream to Riga. The tree which produces the largest masts is the Scotch fir. Those pieces which are from 18 to 25 inches in diameter are called masts; under those dimensions, spars, or, in England, Norway masts, because Norway exports no trees more than 18 inches in diameter. Great skill is required in distinguishing those masts that are sound from those which are in the least internally decayed. They are usually from 70 to 80 feet in length. Hemp is brought from the Ukraine and Poland, and requires 2 years in its passage to Riga. The barks in which it is conveyed are from 250 to 300 tons burden, covered with mats sloping like a pent house roof, and have a false bottom. They ascend the Dnieper and the Duna; but on account of numerous shoals, can only pass the Duna in the spring, or about 3 weeks after the snow begins to melt; and, if they miss that time, are delayed till autumn. The hemp exported from Riga is considered the best in Europe, and is generally about 30 per cent. dearer than that exported from Petersburgh. Riga hemp is chiefly used for the shrouds and stays of men-of-war.-(Coxe' Travels in the North of Europe, 5th ed. vol. ii. p. 241.) The best kind of flax shipped from Riga is grown in White Russia, and is called Druana rakitzer; its colour is very white, and the threads long, fine, and loose, but it has sometimes black spots: the next quality, coining from the province of Trockic in Lithuania, is called Lithuanian rakitzer, and is very little inferior to Druana, but its colour is a little brown; of this kind the best sort is Thiesenhausen. The best kind of Courland flax shipped from Riga is Marienburgh; that grown in Livonia is of inferior quality. There are two kinds of linseed: that of the last crop, which is used for sowing; and that of former years, for crushing. To prevent deception, the year of its growth is stamped on the barrel by sworn inspectors (brackers). Some hemp-seed is occasionally shipped, mostly to Holland. Riga wheat is very inferior to that of Dantzic. Two descriptions are shipped-one the growth of Russia, the other of Courland; the last is much the best, being larger bodied and of a brighter colour than the Russian; still, however, it makes but indifferent flour. Oats are of a good quality, and are largely exported; peas are also occasionally exported. In shipping masts, the rest of the cargo generally consists of deals and wainscot logs; the latter are much exported to England, and are very superior. Tallow is not so cheap here as at Petersburgh. Money. For the monies of Riga, see PETERSBURGH. The current rixdollar of Riga 3s. 1d. sterling; hence 11. sterling = 6 rixdollars 36 groschen currency; the Riga dollar being divided into 90 groschen. Weights and Measures.-The commercial pound is divided into 2 marcs, or 32 loths; and also into halves, quarters, &c. It contains 6,452 English grains. Hence, 100 lbs. of Riga 92-17 Ibs. avoirdupois 418 kilog. 86-32 lbs. of Hamburgh = 84·64 lbs. of Amsterdam. The lispound = 20 lbs. ; the shippound 20 lispounds. The loof is the measure for grain : 48 loofs = 1 last of wheat, barley, or linseed; 45 loofs = 1 last of rye; and 60 loofs 1 last of oats, malt, and beans.-According to Dr. Kelly, the loof= 1.9375 Winchester bushel; and, consequently, the last of wheat = 11·625 quarters. Nelkenbrecher does not value the loof quite so high as Dr. Kelly. The fuder, the measure for liquids, is divided into 6 ahms, 24 ankers, 120 quarts, or 720 stoofs. The anker 10 English wine gallons. The foot of Riga 10-79 English inches. The ell 2 feet; the clafter 6 feet. I. Account of the Quantities of the Principal Articles exported from Riga during each of the Three Years ending with 1833. Years. Ships. IV. Ships despatched from Riga during the Six Years ending with 1832. RIO DE JANEIRO, the capital of Brazil, situated in lat. 22° 54′ 15′′ S., lon. 43° 15' 50" W. Population about 160,000. The harbour of Rio is one of the finest in the world, both as respects capaciousness and security for all sorts of vessels. In coming from the N. E. it is usual to make Cape Frio, in lat. 23° 1′ 18′′ S., lon. 42° 3′ 19′′ W., being about 4 leagues nearly E. of Rio. The entrance to the harbour is marked by a remarkable hill in the form of a sugar loaf, 900 feet high, close to its west side; while on the east, or opposite side of the bay, at the distance of about 1 mile, is the fort of Santa Cruz. But the woodcut in the next page, taken from a chart published by order of the Brazilian authorities, gives a much better idea of this noble harbour than could be obtained from any description. Entrance to the Harbour.-Vessels bound for Rio, coming from the N., should, after rounding Cape Frio, steer due W., keeping about 3 leagues from the coast, until they come within 5 or 6 miles of the Ilha Raza, or Flat Island, lying almost due S. from the mouth of the harbour, at the distance of about 3 leagues. A light-house, the lantern of which is said to be elevated nearly 300 feet above the level of the sea was erected on this island in 1829. The light is a revolving one, finishing its revolution in 3 minutes, and exhibiting alternately a white and a red light. There is also a light-house in the fort of Santa Cruz, the light of which is fixed and elevated about 50 feet above the level of the sea.-(Coulier sur les Phares, 2d ed.) Having got within 5 or 6 miles of the Ilha Raza, ships may enter by day or by night, the dotted line in the cut marking the fairway into the harbour. There are no pilots to be met with; and, as there are no hidden dangers of any kind, their services are not wanted. On entering, vessels must pass within hail of Fort Santa Cruz, to be ready to answer any questions that may be put to them. They then proceed to Fort Vilganhon, below or opposite to which they must bring to, or come to anchor, allowing no boats to come alongside, but those of the government, until they have received pratique, when they will be permitted to proceed to the usual place of anchorage for the merchant shipping. The sea breeze generally sets in about 11 A. M., and lasts till about sun-set. It is strong enough to enable ships to overcome the ebb. High water at full and change at 2 in the afternoon. Trade. The trade of Rio is extensive, and has increased rapidly of late years, The principal articles of export are coffee, sugar, cotton, hides, rum, tallow, indigo, coarse cotton cloths, gold, diamonds, precious stones, tobacco, cabinet and dye woods, rice, &c. The imports consist principally of cottons, hardware, flour, dried fish, linens, woollens, soap and candles, wines, oils, &c. Until 1830, slaves formed one of the principal articles of import into Rio and other Brazilian ports; so many as 45,000 having been imported in one year, of which Rio received the greater proportion. But, according to a convention entered into with this country, this infamous traffic should have ceased in February, 1830: whether it has really done so is more than we can undertake to affirm. Comparative Monthly and Yearly Statement of the Coffee, Sugar, and Hides exported from Rio de Janeiro, during the Six Years ending with 1832. 35,429 38,396 November. December Total 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 2,078 594 1,117 2,789 1,855 593 1,870 1,484 1,941 662 841 This statement is taken from the Circular of Stockmeyer, Gracie, & Co., dated Rio de Janeiro, 4th of January, 1833, who state that thes derived the details from the manifests of the vessels clearing out at the Custom house. References to Plan.-A, Ilha do Catunduba. B, Fort de St. Joao. C, Morro do Flamengo. D, Ponta do Calhabouco. E, Fort da Ilha das Cobras. F, Ilha das Rattos. G, Fort da Boa Viagem. The increase in the exports of sugar and coffee from Brazil during the last 10 years has been quite unprecedented. In 1822, the total export of sugar from the empire was only 40,000 tons, whereas it now amounts to about 75,000 tons. In 1821, the quantity of coffee exported from Rio did not exceed 7,500 tons; but in 1833 it amounted to more than 4 times that quantity, or to about 35,000 tons! The exports of cotton have also increased, but not so rapidly. The imports of cotton from Brazil to England in 1831, were 31,695,761 lbs., being between a 7th and an 8th of the total quantity we imported that year. In 1832, the imports declined to 20,109,560 lbs. A considerable part of the extraordinarily rapid increase of the sugar and coffee cultivation in Brazil must be ascribed to the facility with which slaves have recently been imported; and it is possible that the cessation of their importation, supposing the convention to that effect to be executed, may check, for a while, the extension of cultivation in Brazil. We have derived the following statements, as to the trade of Brazil, from the highest mercantile authority. Of their accuracy there can be no more question than of their interest and importance :-"Unfortunately, the government of Brazil does not publish any official statements of the trade of the different ports, not even of the amount of exports or imports, so that information on these points can only be drawn from private sources. "Estimated Amount of Brazilian Exports, with their Values at the Port of Shipment. RIO GRANDE OF THE SOUTH.-Hides and tallow, (chiefly coastwise to other ports, but) foreign export about SANTOS.-Sugar, rice, and coffee, (much direct to Rio, but) foreign export bags, 20,000 5 0 0 per bag 100,000 10 0 0 per case 50,000 150,000 2,420,000 100,000 100,000 200,000 5,500,000 "The imports are chiefly from Great Britain, consisting principally of our cotton, linen, woollen, hardware, and other manufactures, amounting annually to about 4,000,000l. The remainder of the Imports consist of wines, brandies, &c. from Portugal and the Mediterranean; flour from the United States; cod fish from ditto and Newfoundland; with a comparatively small amount of French, German, Swiss, and Indian manufactures, and tea; the latter chiefly through the United States. "The duties on all imports, without exception, are 15 per cent. on the tariff value, which averages about 20 per cent. on the real value of British goods: those on exports vary at the different ports, and on every description of produce. On coffee they amount to about 10 per cent.; on sugar, 12 per cent. (being paid by the planter). The export duty on cotton has lately been reduced from 20 to about 3 per cent. "There are no commercial or discount banks in any part of Brazil; but at Rio there is one of issue, the whole of its transactions being with the government. "The usual mode of selling goods in Brazil is on an open credit of 4 to 8 months, and sometimes even 12 months, the parties paying by weekly or monthly instalments, as they effect sales, generally exceeding the stipulated credit, by 2, 3, and even 6 months, according to the state of the markets, without allowing any charge for interest. On the other hand, all produce is bought by the foreign merchants for cash down, or, if any credit be given, the usual extra charge is 1 per cent. per month; in fact, the whole commerce of the country is on British capital. "The usual commissions are, 5 per cent. on the sale of goods; 2 ditto for guarantee; with 2 per cent. for the purchase and shipment of produce in return; 5 per cent. when purchased by credits on London: the usance being 60 days after sight. "The currency of Brazil is chiefly paper and copper, of a very depreciated and base kind, and varying in almost every province. The par of exchange, when the silver currency was maintained, was 674d. and the current rate always above it, say from 70d. to 72d.; but now, owing to the introduction of paper and copper, the exchange has fallen at Rio, to 36d., Bahia 32d., Pernambuco 38d., and Maranham 40d.; and, at one period, the exchange at Rio fell as low as 20d., owing to the extensive issue of paper by the bank. "The great difficulties under which our trade with Brazil labours are,-1st, The prohibitory duties chargeable on sugar and coffee, the chief productions of the country; which admit to consumption +Case of sugar about 15 cwt. *Bag of coffee about 1 cwt. 1 qr. 14 lbs. VOL. II.-2 M 52 |