beautiful in the workmanship, as not to be excelled even by the best specimens of Brussels lace. During the late war, veils of this lace were sold in London at from 20 to 100 guineas; they are now sold from 8 to 15 guineas. The effects of the competition of machinery, however, were about this time felt; and in 1815, the broad laces began to be superseded by the new manufacture. The pillow lace trade has since been gradually dwindling into insignificance, and has at length sunk into a state which, compared with its condition 20 years back, is truly deplorable. It is difficult to form an estimate of the number of persons employed in pillow lace making during its prosperity; but in a petition from the makers in Buckingham and the neighbourhood, presented to her present Majesty in 1830, it was stated that 120,000 persons were dependent on this trade; but this number had since been materially diminished.

Nottingham Lace.-A frame-work knitter of Nottingham, named Hammond, about the year 1768, was the first who made lace by machinery. Dissipated in habits, and destitute of money, employment, or credit, the idea struck him, while looking at the broad lace on his wife's cap, that he could fabricate a similar article by means of his stocking frame.—(Gravenor Henson on Hosiery, Lace, &c., p. 295.) He tried, and succeeded. The first machine ostensibly for lace (introduced at Nottingham about the same period, by A. Else and Harvey of London) was called a pin machine, for making single press point net in imitation of the Brussels ground. This machine, although lost here, is still used in France to a great extent in manufacturing the net called tulle. This was the age of experiments; and workmen at their leisure hours employed themselves in forming new meshes on the hand, in hope of perfecting a complete hexagon, which had hitherto eluded all their efforts to discover. In 1782, the warp frame was introduced, which is still in use for making warp lace; and in 1799, it was first attempted to make bobbin net by machinery; but this was not found to answer. During the succeeding 10 years many alterations were made in the construction of the machines, with no better success, until at length, in 1809, Mr. Heathcoat of Tiverton succeeded in discovering the correct principle of the bobbin net frame, and obtained a patent for 14 years for his invention.* Steam power was first introduced by Mr. John Lindley, in 1815-16; but did not come into active operation till 1820. It became general in 1822-23; and a great stimulus was at this period given to the trade, owing to the expiration of Mr. Heathcoat's patent, the increased application of power, and the perfection to which the dif ferent hand frames had by this time been brought. A temporary prosperity shone on the trade; and numerous individuals-clergymen, lawyers, doctors, and others-readily embarked capital in so tempting a speculation. Prices fell in proportion as production increased; but the demand was immense; and the Nottingham lace frame became the organ of general supply,―rivalling and supplanting, in plain nets, the most finished productions of France and the Netherlands.

Mr. William Felkin, of Nottingham, the author of a very able statement relative to this manufacture, considers that the amount of capital and the number of hands employed in the bobbin net trade may be thus estimated.—(Published August, 1833.)

In 1831 (vide former edition of this work), the annual produce was estimated at 23,400,000 square yards, worth 1,891,875%. It is now estimated at 30,771,000 square yards, * Since this article was printed in our first edition, Mr. Heathcoat was pointed out to us as the original inventor of the bobbin net machine, and that, prior to his patent being obtained, bobbin net by machinery was unknown, although numerous attempts had been made to produce it by its means. Mr. Brunel, engineer, who was examined, as a witness, in the action Boville v. Moore, tried before Sir Vicary Gibbs, in March, 1816, stated in reference to this machine, that when Mr. Heathcoat had separated one half of the threads, and placed them on a beam as warp threads, and made the bobbin which carried the other half of the threads act between those warp threads, so as to produce Buckinghamshire or pillow lace, the lace machine was invented. Relying upon the authenticity of this statement, we feel it due to Mr. Heathcoat to give this explanation.

worth 1,850,650. It would therefore appear that 7,000,000 square yards more per annum are now produced for about the same amount of wages and profits. This increase in quantity is understood to have arisen from the new and improved machinery which in the mean time has been introduced. At this moment, there are, perhaps, 20 new applications of known principles, all tending to promote variety and increased production; but it is doubtful if any new principle has been brought into operation. A considerable increase has also taken place in bobbin net machinery on the Continent, particularly at Calais, where, in 1823, there were not 35 machines, and, perhaps, not 100 on the Continent altogether. Mr Felkin states the number of frames now employed there, as under :—

The produce of these machines is estimated at 9,824,000 square yards of net, of the value in English money of 570,2501. In France alone, it was stated in an address presented to the Chamber of Deputies in March, 1833, that bobbin net to the value of 1,000,0007. sterling was annually used in that country, formed of equal moieties of French and English manufacture. But in other parts of Europe, where the manufacture was previously unknown, it is now also beginning to be established. Besides Austria, Russia, and Prussia, it is stated that orders have been sent to this country for bobbin net frames from Barcelona and Astorga in Spain, and even from some places in Persia. The attention of government has been called to the circumstance, and measures taken to prevent the illegal exportation of machinery. At a public meeting, held in Nottingham in August last, a committee was formed for the same purpose.

The population of Nottingham and the surrounding villages in 1811, when the bobbin net manufacture commenced, was 47,000; the present number is 79,000. As the hosiery

and the point net trade are understood to have declined in the mean time, and no other branch materially advanced or sprung up, this large increase may fairly be attributed to the bobbin net manufacture.

By comparing the value of 1,270,000 lbs. of Sea Island cotton, worth 148,000%., and about 10,000l. worth of thrown silk, which appears to be annually used in this manufacture, with the manufactured value of the same, worked into 30,771,000 square yards of bobbin net, the estimated value of which is 1,850,650, the great national utility of this trade becomes at once evident. A clear surplus of more than a pound sterling is realised upon every pound avoirdupois of the raw material, which is distributed over the trade in rent, profit, and wages, and this is altogether independent of the profits arising from embroidering, in itself a most extensive and important branch. About half, or perhaps three-fourths, of this production is supposed to be exported in a plain state, chiefly to Hamburgh, the Leipsic and Frankfort fairs, Antwerp and the rest of Belgium, to France (contraband), Italy, Sicily, and North and South America. Of the remainder, three-fourths are sold unembroidered, and the remaining fourth embroidered, in this country.

The English manufacture from machinery is now confined to point net, warp net, and bobbin net, so called from the peculiar construction of the machines by which they are produced. There were various other descriptions made; viz. two-plain net, square or tuck knotted net, the fish mesh net, and the platted or Urling's net, but they are now discontinued.— (Gravenor Henson.) Nottingham is the depôt of the lace trade; and the supplies, collected from all the surrounding villages, and even from the more distant counties where it is manufactured, are thence distributed to the four quarters of the world.

Present condition of the Lace Trade, Wages, &c.-We are grieved to say that the manufacture, not only of pillow but also of Nottingham lace, is at this moment in a state of great depression. The growth of the latter has been the means of destroying the former; but as the new manufacture is by far the most valuable, the change, though severely felt by many thousands of poor persons in Bucks, Bedford, and other counties, is, in a national point of view, decidedly advantageous. The depression in the Nottingham lace trade seems to be the result of its previous prosperity; which, besides contributing to the extraordinary increase in the powers of production, attracted too much capital and too many hands to the trade. So long as the demand kept pace with the supply, workmen were kept in full employment, wages and profits were good, and the stocks on hand small. But of late years the supply has been a question of quantity rather than of quality, and prices have consequently suffered a great depression. Lace, having become a common ornament, easily accessible to all classes, has lost its attractions in the fashionable circles, by which it was

formerly patronised, so that very rich lace is no longer in demand. And many articles of dress, which in our drawing-rooms and ball-rooms, lately consisted of the most costly and tasteful patterns in lace, are now either superseded, or made of a different manufacture.

The wages of the power loom workmen have fallen, within the last 4 years, from 17. 4s. to 188. per week—(Felkin, p. 2.); and, in 1830 and 1831, machines had increased one eighth in number, and one sixth in capacity of production. But wider or speedier machines than heretofore have since come into more general use, worked by 3 men in 6 hour shifts, or 18 hours per day, and calculated to produce about a fourth more net for the same wages; the effect of which is to supersede the single-handed machines, (now much depreciated in value), and reduce many of the small owners to journeymen. The tendency of the increase in power machinery is still further to depreciate the wages of the hand machine workmen (already below the standard of the power loom weaver); and the increased and accumulating production, beyond a proportionate demand, renders it hopeless to expect any immediate amelioration in their condition. A favourable reaction is now taking place in the embroidering branch; but many of the embroiderers in Nottingham were recently unemployed, and had to leave the trade; and even for the most splendid and beautiful specimens of embroidery (some of which have occupied 6 weeks, working 6 days a week and 14 hours a day), the young women did not earn more than 1s. a day. The depressed condition of the embroiderers is believed to be owing in no inconsiderable degree to the competition of the Belgians, who have acquired a superiority in this department which it is not easy to account for. The condition of the pillow lace workers is still more deplorable. Many have now abandoned that pursuit for straw plaiting, which offers a more certain, though not a much more profitable employment; but those who still linger on in the fabri cation of thread lace, working from 12 to 14 hours a day, cannot obtain more, on the aver. age, than two shillings and sixpence a week for their anxious and unremitting labour Ten years ago they could, with greater ease, earn 10s. a week, working only 8 hours a day, The health of the power machine workman is, on the whole, understood to be good; the factories are neither hot nor confined; and the hands have only to superintend, not work the machines. Hand machine labour is much heavier; but as it is the custom to work by "shifts," the men are seldom more than 6 hours a day at the frame. It is, however, be lieved, that the gradual depression of wages, requiring increased exertion, will tend to deteriorate the general health of this class, particularly of those employed in wide machines. The embroidery frame is, perhaps, the most destructive. The workers in general, commence at a tender age; and from constantly leaning over the frame, while their bodies remain in a state of inactivity, they are frequently distorted in their persons, and become the victims of pulmonary disease. Notwithstanding the sedentary habits of the pillow lace workers, their general health is understood to be better than that of the lace embroiderers; but, in both these employments, the hours of labour are too long for children. They are, however, purely domestic employments, under the superintendence of parents; but as the existence of the latter depends on the quantity of labour they can bring into operation, their necessities place filial considerations beyond the reach of legislative, or even social, interfer

ence.

The most celebrated foreign laces are

1. Brussels, the most valuable. There are 2 kinds; Brussels ground, having a hexagon mesh, formed by piatting and twisting 4 threads of flax to a perpendicular line of mesh; Brussels wire ground, made of sik-meshes partly straight, and partly arched. The pattern is worked separately, and set on by the needle.

2. Mechlin; a hex gou msh formed of 3 flax threads twisted and platted to a perpendicular line or pillar. The pattern is worked in Le ct.

3. l'alenciennes; an irregular hexagonal form of 2 threads, partly twisted and platted at the top of the mesh. The pattern is worked in the net similar to Mechlin lace.

4. Lasie; a diamond mesh, formed of 2 threads platted to a pillar.

5. .encon (called blond); hexagon of 2 threads, twisted similar to Buckingham lace; considered the most inferior of any made on the cushio.

6. lien Point; formed of 2 threads to a pillar, with octagon and square meshes alternately.

LACK, a word used in the East Indies to denote the sum of 100,000 rupees, which, supposing them standards, or siccas, at 2s. 6d., amounts to 12,5007. sterling.

LADING, BILL OF. See BILL OF LADING.

LAGAN. See FLOTSAM.

LA GUAYRA, the principal sea-port of the republic of Venezuela, in the province of Caraccas, on the Caribbean Sea, in lat. 10° 36′ 19′′ N., lon. 67° 6′ 45′′ W. Population 6,000. In 1810, the population is believed to have amounted to 13,000; the reduction being a consequence of the loss of life caused by the tremendous earthquake of 1812, and the massacres and proscriptions incident to the revolutionary war. The population of the city of Caraccas, of which La Guayara may be considered as the port, fell off, from the same cause, from 43,000 in 1810; to 23,000 in 1830; but they are now both increasing.

Port.-There is neither quay nor mole at La Guayra. Ships moor E.N.E. and W.S.W., with their head to the north, at from to of a mile from the land, in from 9 to 18 fathoms. The holding ground

is good; and notwithstanding the openness of the road, vessels properly found in anchors and cables run very little risk of being driven from their moorings.

Trade. The principal articles of export are coffee, cacao, indigo, hides, sarsaparilla, &c. The quantities and values of these articles exported in 1829, 1830, and 1831, are exhibited in the following Table:

Years.

in

Value
in

Value
in

Value
in

Value
in

Value

in

Weight. Sterling Weight. Sterling Weight. Sterling Number. Sterling Weight. Ster!.

Weight. Sterling

Money.

Money.

Money.

Money.

Mon.

Money.

Lbs. L. Lbs. L.. L. 1,824,222 45,029 393,974 81,069 8.953 2,295 2,121,453 57,043 217,052 38,237 6,990 2,330 32,172 782 1,791,814 42,741 192,035 31,456 12,508 4,169 14,820 365 232,672 2.289

1831

The principal articles of import are cotton, linen, and woollen goods, principally from England; with provisions, hats, machinery and utensils, hardware, wine, &c. The entire value of the imports, in 1831, was supposed to amount to 162,5031.; of which 62,4231, was furnished by England; 26,082. by Germany; 32,7591. by the United States; 29,3447. at second hand by St. Thomas; and the residue by France, Spain, &c.

The duties are moderate. Cottons and linens pay 27 per cent. ad valorem. Smuggling has been very prevalent; but efforts have recently been made, by establishing a sort of coast-guard, to effect its suppression.

Port Charges payable by a Ship of 300 Tons, discharging and loading at the Port of La Guayra.

Foreign (not privileged).

National.

N. B.-A ship introducing a cargo, and sailing in ballast, would be liable to all the above charges, with the exception of the last two.

The charge for water is levied without regard to tonnage ; viz. sloops and schooners, 20 dollars each, brigs 30, and ships 40.

Port Regulations.-On casting anchor, a visit is paid by the collector of customs, or his agent, accompanied by other officers, who take from the master his register, manifest, and muster-roll, and an officer is left on board until the cargo is discharged. The master must swear to his manifest within 24 hours after his arrival, when the permit to discharge is granted, and within 3 days all invoices must be presented. The discharge completed, the same officers repair on board to examine the vessel, and all being found in order, the officer is withdrawn. The clearing of a vessel outwards (that has entered with cargo) in ballast is then completed by paying the port charges; proof whereof being produced, the permission to sail is signed by the governor and harbour master. If the vessel take cargo on board, then the same formality, as to visiting, is pursued, as on the entry of a vessel.

Credit.-Goods imported are almost invariably sold upon credit; those exported are, on the other hand always sold for ready money. The terms of credit vary from 2 to 6 months, or more. Bankruptcy is very rare.

Commission, Brokerage, &c.-Any one who pleases may undertake the functions of broker, factor, or merchant in Venezuela. The only obligation is the paying the patent or licence, that must be taken out by every one exercising such trades. This varies, according to the business, from about 11. 3s. 4d., to 667. 18s. 4d. a year, and falls on natives as well as foreigners. The rates of commission are as follows:

Insurance.-There are no establishments for conducting the business of insurance in Venezuela. Money, Weights, and Measures.-The currency of the country consists of silver money, known by the name of macuquena, divided into dollars of 8 reals, do. of 4 reals, besides reals, reals, and quartillas or reals. This money is of very unequal weight and purity, the coins issued since the commencement of the revolutionary war having been often a good deal defaced. The real should be worth 5d. sterling.

Weights and measures same as those of Spain, but it is intended to introduce the British Imperial gallon.

Tures. Real tare is taken both at the Custom-house and by the merchant.

Commercial Prospects.-The commerce and industry of Venezuela suffered severely from the revo, lutionary struggle of which she has been the theatre. But the country is now comparatively tranquil, and there seem to be good reasons for thinking that she is about to enter on a career of prosperity. As the riches of Venezuela consist entirely of the products of her agriculture, the legislature has wisely exerted itself to give it all the encouragement possible. In this view tithes have been abolished, and heir collection was finally to cease on the 1st of January, 1834. The tobacco monopoly has also

been abolished, and invitations have been held out to foreigners to settle in the country; but there is little prospect of their being much attended to, at least for some considerable time. The final recognition by Spain of the independence of this and the other new states would materially promote their interests; and it is to be hoped that it may not be much longer deferred.

We have derived these details principally from the carefully drawn up Answers made by Sir Robert Ker Porter, the British consul at Caraccas, to the Circular Queries.

(LAMAR, formerly COBIJA, a sea-port of the republic of Bolivia, the ci-devant Upper Peru, on the west coast of South America, in lat. 22° 39′ 30′′ S., long. 70° 12′ W. Population, 2,000.?

In 1833 Lamar was declared a free port, and in it centres almost the whole foreign trade of the republic. Its situation is, however, very unfavourable. It labours under a great want of fresh water; and is obliged to import all its provisions by sea, either from Valparaiso, on the one hand, or from Arica, on the other. The desert of Atacama lies between it and the internal and populous part of the country, where the towns of Potosi, Cochabamba, Charcas, &c. are situated. The produce imported at Lamar is conveyed across the desert on the backs of mules to the interior; the gold and silver of the mines being brought in the same way to the port to be shipped. These, with copper, saltpetre, and chinchilli skins, form the principal articles of export. Saltpetre is found in large quantities in the desert; the copper is found near the coast, and owing to the scarcity of fuel, most part of it is exported in the shape of ore.

Peru possesses a long narrow slip of land, stretching along the coast of the Pacific from Arequipa to the Bay of Pica, which ought naturally to belong to Bolivia, being, in fact the littoral of the latter. The Bolivian government has set on foot various negotiations to obtain the cession of this tract, which, besides greatly improving the frontier of the republic, would, at the same time, render her mistress of Arica, which is, in all respects, much better fitted than Lamar for becoming the entrepôt of her trade. Hitherto, however, these negotiations have proved abortive, so that, as already stated, Lamar at present engrosses the whole foreign trade of the state.

We subjoin the decree constituting Lamar a free port:

1. From and after the 1st of July of this present year, 1833, Port Lamar shall te absolutely free and open.

2. Vessels of every nation may enter this port and remain as long as they please, without being subjected to any tax whatever, either on entrance, or during their stay, or on their departure.

3. They shall be free from all duties of anchorage, tonnage, shifting, unloading, or reloading of cargo, deposit, storage, or any other of whatever denomination.

4. Goods may be deposited in private warehouses, without any intervention on the part of the government.

5. The custom-house of Port Lamar is suppressed. In its stead will be a commissioner's office, for the purpose of distributing peruits for the transportation of goods into the interior.

6. Whenever goods are to be sent into the interior, they must first be submitted to the commissioner, together with the invoice corresponding.

7. The commissioner will register them in a book, together with their valuation, made by two merchants of the place, and the names of their owners, of the person of whom, and the place where they are to be sent. This is to be signed by the person entering the goods, who at the same time binds himself to have them transported direct to the custom house for which they are destined, without opening any of the cases, bags, or other envelopes, each of which shall be sealed, marked, and numbered before departure. These points are to be expressed in the permit.

8. The commissioner shall by the earliest post send a notice to the collector of the custom-house for which any merchandise is destined, specifying the numbers, characters, quantities, and qualities of the several articles.

9. The goods must not be carried by any unaccustomed roads, but only through Calama and the public thoroughfares; and whenever they pass through any place at which a guard or commissioner is stationed, the permits must be exhibited, in order that their arrival with their seals unbroken may be ascertained.

10. Merchants, either in person or by a representative, must produce to the commissioner of the port a certificate of the delivery of the goods at the custom-house for which they are destined within 6 months from the day of their entry; in case they do not, they must at the end of that period pay the whole duties on them.

11. From and after the 1st of July, 1833, all goods entered at Port Lamar shall pay a duty of only 5 per cent. over and above that of half, per cent. to the consulado.

12. The duty of 5 per cent. shall be paid thus: at the port 2 per cent, on the valuation made as aforesaid; and the other 3 at the custom-house in the interior for which the goods are destined. In each case one half at the end of 3, the other half at the end of 5 mouths.

13. All goods carried from Fort Lamar by land to any of the adjoining republics shall only pay a transit duty of 2 per cent.

14. A duty of 2 per cent shall be paid on three fourths of all gold and silver money entered at any of the custom houses in the interior for exportation through Port Lamar.

15. It is absolutely prohibited to export gold or silver, in bullion or plate, except in small quantities for the use of the person carrying it out. It will be seized wherever it is found on this side the districts of San Antonio, San Vincente, Atoca, Agua de Castilla, Lequepate, or the line of the canal.

16. All hardware for agriculture and mining, machinery, instruments of science or the arts, iron, steel, quicksilver, and moral books, may be introduced free of duty into the republic, and productions of Bolivia may be exported likewise free.

17. A premium of 2 per cent. on their value shall be allowed on the exportation through Port Lamar, of cascarilla, wool, tin, cotton, and coffee, in the shape of remission from duties to the amount on goods carried into the interior from the same port. The remaining articles of the decree are of a purely local nature.

(See Digest of Commercial Regulations published by the Government of the United States, vol. iii. p. 443. Balbi, Abrégé de la Géographie, p. 1106.)-Sup.)

LAMB-SKINS (Ger. Lammsfelle; Fr. Peaux d'agneaux, It. Pelli agnelline; Sp. Pielles de corderos). The value of lamb-skins varies according to the fineness, brilliancy, and colour of the wool. Black lamb-skins are more generally esteemed than those of any other colour. English lamb-skins are seldom to be met with perfectly black; but since the introduction of Merino sheep into this country, many of the white fleeces have, in point of quality, arrived at a pitch of perfection which justly entitles them to be ranked with some of the best fleeces in Spain. The importation of lamb-skins is immense, having amounted, on an average of 1831 and 1832, to 2,365,635. Eight tenths of the whole quantity are supplied by Italy. They are mostly used in the glove manufacture.

LAMP (Ger. Lampe; Fr. Lampe; It. Lucerna; Sp. Lampara; Rus. Lampadu), an instrument used for the combustion of liquid inflammable bodies, for the purpose of producing artificial light.

It is unnecessary to give any description of instruments that are so well known. We may, how ever, remark that the discovery of Sir H. Davy, who, by covering the flame with wire gauze, succeeded in producing a lamp that may be securely used in coal mines charged with inflammable gas, is one of the most ingenious and valuable that has ever been made. The following extracts from a communication of Mr. Buddle, one of the ablest and best-informed coal engineers in the kingdom, evince the great importance of Sir Humphry Davy's invention.

"Besides the facilities afforded by this invention to the working of coal mines abounding in fire damp, it has enabled the directors and superintendents to ascertain, with the utmost precision and expedition, both the presence, the quantity, and correct situation of the gas. Instead of creeping inch by inch with a candle, as is usual, along the galleries of a mine suspected to contain fire damp, in order to ascertain its presence, we walk firmly on with the safe lamps, and, with the utmost confidence, prove the actual state of the mine. By observing attentively the several appearances upon the flame of the lamp, in an examination of this kind, the cause of accidents which happened to the most experienced and cautious miners is completely developed; and this has hitherto been in a great measure matter of mere conjecture.