In the first portion of the work the author treats of the History of Greece under the dynasties of Rome and Byzantium, from the capture of Corinth to the conquest of Constantinople by Mahomet II. A. D. 1450. This period has been already treated of by Gibbon, and summarily by Gast in his History of Greece; but as the volumes before us point out some material errors in the labours of previous writers, they must not be regarded by any means as a mere compilation or condensation of these productions, but as a composition drawn from the original authorities. In fact Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall, has sketched in the space of about ten pages, that which Mr. Emerson has given in detail in nearly two hundred, whilst the history of Greece during the dynasty of the Latin Emperors of Constantinople, and the accounts of the various chieftain ries which sprung up during the era of Crusades, have been omitted by him. almost altogether. The attention of Gibbon was, indeed, confined exclusively to the two grand points, Rome and Byzantium; and Greece, which occupies a central position, has been either overlooked by him altogether, or merely casually noticed in recording the exploits of the Eastern or Western emperors.

The second grand era in the history of modern Greece, is that which involves from the conquest of Mahomet II. to the final expulsion of the Venetians from the islands and continent of the Morea and Northern Greece. The details of these protracted wars, which occupied incessantly nearly three centuries, form by far the most interesting portion of the annals of modern Hellas, and have received proportionate investigation from the author before us; and the celebrated events of this momentous period, the fall of Athens, the wars of Scanderberg, the exploits of the Dukes of Naxos, the battle of Seporto, and the sieges of Candia, Cyprus, &c. have all been recounted with minuteness and fidelity. The peace of Pessarowitz, in 1718, terminated this protracted struggle, and assigned the Peloponessus and all dependencies permanently to the sultan. During an interval of nearly a century, no events of any importance occupy the attention of the historian; and Mr. Emerson has taken advantage of this pause to introduce a series of sketches of the intellectual decline of the Greeks from the Roman conquest to the date of which he treats. The first is devoted to the constitutional history of the country under the Ottoman dynasty; (he had previously given an account of its political condition under the emperors.) To this succeeds a view of the military and diplomatic bodies, which form he most prominent classes amongst the modern Greeks; we refer to the Klefts and Arneatoli, and the Phanariots and Hospodars of Wallachia and Moldavia. In these he has displayed much industry and research; and the history of the former in particular, is traced to a period much earlier than has been actually assigned to this singular institution amongst the Greeks. The similarity between the latter body, and the adventures described by Juvenal in his Third Satire, will at once strike the reader. The tenth chapter of the first volume, and the thirteenth of the second, are devoted to the ecclesiastical and literary history of modern Greece. We present a few extracts.

"The early progress of Christianity in the countries in the midst of which it originated, was marked by striking peculiarities in each. By the Jews, in the way of the accomplishment of whose haughty and ambitious anticipations it was an insuperable stumbling-block, its doctrines were at once rejected as an imposture. With the Greeks, who had already argued themselves into an unbelief of their ancient mythology, its reception was at first cold and cautious; for a time they looked upon its pretensions with a philosophical and scrutinizing eye, and denominated as foolishness that which their

conviction could not permit them wholly to reject, nor their scepticism allow them cordially to receive. Even after its precepts had obtained a firm footing amongst them, the same spirit of investigation, the same taste for analytic dispute, and the same passion for polemics and argument, prevailed. The Romans, on the contrary, unaccustomed to originality in any thing, received with promptness their dogmas of belief, as they had already done their principles of art and their taste for literature. Their dogged and uninquiring genius, which was content with imitation in the ordinary affairs of life, was a ready subject for the operation of “ Faith,” in the concerns of religion; and the advancement of the new sect at Rome, in spite of the persecutions of the early empe rors, was commensurate with the confidence and cordiality which welcomed its introduction. Down almost to the present period, the same peculiarities which marked the first establishment of Christianity amongst the two nations, continued to characterize its respective culture by each. The Greeks, whilst their spirits remained unbroken, ere their minds became totally encrusted with the rust of ignorance, and their intellects pa ralysed by the apathy of slavery, were the originators of those polemic disputes which from time to time aroused the animosity and rancour of the followers of Christ; and, whilst the Romans received with implicit reliance the assertions of their spiritual teachers, the restless genius of their fellow-subjects gave rise to those discussions which ter minated in schism, and rent in sunder the sacred unity of the church.

"Previous to the contest regarding the use of images, to which I have already briefly alluded, the attention of the church had been occupied chiefly by the disputes of Arius, concerning the consubstantiality of the Logos; of Macedonius, who denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit; and of Eutyches, who preached the doctrine of the monophysite nature of the Saviour. To these succeeded the celebrated Iconoclastic commotions, which paved the way for the final separation of the churches. Of this last important revolution, the controversy of Photius, A. D. 850, was the immediate forerunner.This celebrated quarrel was based on the double grounds of political ambition and theological argument. Photius had attained the patriarchal honours on the unjust deposi tion of Ignatius by Cæsar Bardas, uncle to Michael III. and whilst he was warmly supported by his patron, the cause of the injured prelate was zealously espoused by Nicolas I. one of the most haughty and aspiring of the Roman pontiffs. Councils, embassies, and negotiations without number, attempted in vain to settle the dispute, which perpetual discussion soon ripened into a rankling and irreconcilable hostility, whose asperity was heightened by the contemporary quarrels regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit. By the party of Photius, it was maintained that the third person of the Trinity emanated from the Father alone, and that the words filio que were an interpolation of the Romans; whilst their opponents, indignant at the charge, continued to chant the obnoxious words in the liturgy of the Vatican, and to hold the Nicene and Athanasian creeds as the test of the Catholic faith. These controversies continued, with few interruptions, from the eight to the eleventh century, when the flame broke out afresh, and a final separation was effected between the churches of the East and West. A petulant invective was at this period published by Michael Cerularius, the Byzantine patriarch, against the errors of the pontiffs of Rome. The insult was retorted by Leo IX. whose Legates, in the heart of Constantinople, and at the altar of St. Sophia, excommunicated its author, and consigned him for ever, together with all teachers of error, to the society of the Devil and his angels. From that period to the present, the schism has continued unclosed. As the Eastern empire verged to its annihilation, va rious efforts were made by its distracted rulers to conciliate the friendship of the Latins, by proposals for the reconciliation of the two communities: but all proved alike unproductive of advantage; and in spite of the negotiations of Vataces, of Andronicus II. of John Palæologus, and others, the fatal breach remained, and still remains, unhealed."

"1. They maintain that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only, and not from the Father and Son. 2. They disown the authority of the Pope, and deny that

the church of Rome is the only true Catholic church. 3. They do not affect the character of infallibility, and utterly disallow works of supererogation, and indulgences. 4. They adinit of prayers and services for the dead, as an ancient and pious custom; and even pray for the remission of their sins: but they will not admit the doctrine of purga. tory, nor determine any thing dogmatically concerning the state of departed souls. 5. In baptism they practise triune immersion, (or dip three times ;) but some, as the Georgians, defer the baptism of their children till they are three, four, or more years of age. 6. The chrism, or baptismal unction, immediately follows baptism. The chrism, so'emnly consecrated on Maundy Thursday, is called the unction with ointment, and is a mystery peculiar to the Greek communion, holding the place of confirmation in that of the Romans: it is styled the seal of the gift of the Holy Ghost. 7. They administer the Lord's Supper in both kinds, dipping the bread in the cup of wine, in which a small portion of warm water is infused. They give it both to the clergy and laity, and to children after baptism. 8. They exclude confirmation and extreme unction out of the number of sacraments; but they use the holy oil, (or euchalion) which is not confined to persons in the close of life, (like extreme unction) but is administered, if required, to all sick persons. Three priests, at least, are required to administer this sacrament, each priest, in his turn, anointing the sick person, and praying for his recovery. 9. They deny auricular confession to be a divine command; but practise confession, attended with absolution, and sometimes penance. 10. Though they believe in transubstantiation, (or rather, consubstantiation) they do not worship the elements; but 11. They pay a secondary kind of adoration to the Virgin and other Saints. 12. They do not admit of images, or figures in bas-relief, or embossed work; but use paintings and silver shrines. 13. They admit matrimony to be a sacrament, and celebrate it with great formality. 14. Their secular clergy, under the rank of bishops, are allowed to marry once, and their laymen twice; but fourth marriages are held in abomination. 15. They observe a great number of holy days, and keep four fasts in the year more solemn than the rest, of which Good Friday is the chief.

The remaining Essay relates to the decline of the fine arts amongst the Greeks, and corruption of architecture, sculpture, and painting. It includes one very curious dissertation on the reign of the portraits of Jesus Christ, which is, we believe, the first notice on this interesting subject which has appeared in our language.

Having dismissed these subjects, the author then resumes his political narrative; details the first advances of education throughout Greece, and the simultaneous efforts of the people to emancipate themselves from the Turkish yoke. Their first struggle to effect this object in 1771, when they were roused to rebellion by the Russians, is one of the most interesting events in the annals of modern Europe; and its details in the work before us, are the most extensive and faithful which have hitherto been published. The concluding chapters contain the most ample account of modern Greek literature, its authors and productions; and the work concludes with an historical sketch of the late revolution, which, though inserted as an introduction to the first volume, seems to have been designed as an appendix to the second.

We regret that our limits will not allow us to make extracts from the very interesting chapters on literature and the arts. In the former, Mr. Emerson gives a detailed account of Greek literature, from its decline to its final degradation; and a view of its subsequent rise, with a detached account of that curious branch of ficticious narrative, Greek Romances. He has been satisfied with referring to other sources for the Greek writers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and in the last chapter gives an account of those who have more recently distinguished themselves in the regeneration of

their country. We would suggest that the notices upon the literature of this interesting country should be more condensed, and brought together from the different scattered notices of it; and in the next edition, a general view of all the Romaic writers, and specimens of their works, would add very much to the value of the book. We would also recommend some specimens of the poetry of the middle ages, which, we learn from Mr. Emerson was banished to Crete, (unhappily, now the subject of political discussion); and an extended grammatical view of the Modern Greek language. While on this subject, we would refer our readers to the very curious account given in the second volume, of the controversy in England respecting the pronunciation of Ancient Greek, and the imperious rescript issued by Gardiner against the mode recommended by Erasmus, and his learned coadjutors in reform. One of the most amusing dissertations introduced by our Author, is on the pictures of Christ used by the primitive and later Greek churches, and on the contending sects who differed as to the beauty or deformity, the youth or age of our Blessed Lord. An interesting but short account is given of the celebrated and unfortunate poet and patriot Rhiga; to whom, by the establishment of the secret association of the Hetaria, Greece owes her present prospect of independence. A specimen of the poetry of this modern Tyrtous is added, already known to most readers by Lord Byron's translation of his ode, AɛUTE Taides.

We cannot conclude this brief analysis, without recommending this work to our readers, as containing an highly important and elaborate account of the most interesting country that profane history has ever exhibited for imitation or warning. We feel something like a national pleasure in recollecting that it is a countryman of ours who has filled up the hiatus in the annals of Hellas, that all scholars had regretted and we are sorry that our extracts have necessarily been so limited, from a work that is so valuable, equally for its subject, its fidelity, and its execution.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

A Repeal of the Union the Ruin of Ireland. By
R. B. G. Curry & Co. 1831.

A vigorous and well-seasoned antidote to the popular madness, proving by incontro vertible evidence the advantages resulting to Ireland from the Union, and its rapid progress in spite of all counteracting obstacles; pointing out how a Repeal of the Union would necessarily operate to the loss of all the advantages, and identifying with the low popish desire of elevation, the present agitation of Ireland. The author is completely successful in all that he undertakes to prove; and the only drawhack to the pleasure we have received from a perusal of this pamphlet, is the harshness of the language applied to the prime agitator, which, though it may be true, gives to the work an air of partizanship. We subjoin the following just statement:

"We ask again, what does Ireland want that the repeal would give her? Nothing. She enjoys the blessings of the most glorious constitution on earth: the best market in the world for the produce of her soil

she has a free trade, a free press, and now a perfect liberty of conscience to the Roman Catholic population; she has been advancing in improvement, in industry, in wealth, and civilization, in every thing that can make a country respectable. What does she want then? She wants the emancipation of her Roman Catholic inhabitants from the mischievous delusions of needy unprincipled demagogues: she wants repose from selfish incendiary agitators; she wants peaceable and loyal conduct in the Roman Catholics, that would offer security to English capitalists to invest their wealth in institutions that would encourage indus

We may form an idea of the exertions made at this period for the enlightenment of the Greeks, from the assertion of Rizo, that during the first twenty years of the present century, upwards of three thousand Romaic works have been published on the continent or at Constantinople.

try, diffuse intelligence, reward labour, and spread over her surface the unexplored treasures that lie useless in her bosom for want of means to bring them into efficiency."

We will only add what our author states as some of the effects of the Union :-Since 1800, the gross revenue of the Post Office bas trebled, (from £88,260, to 222,252,) the Penny Post has increased from £230 to 4,402; the number of Post Offices from 279 to 428; of mail coaches from 4 to 36; of Banks from 13 to 36, while SavingsBanks, before unknown, are 70 in number; the excise has increased in twenty-three years a million and a half, and the internal intercourse with the capital, and throughout Ireland, gives employment to 88 public coaches, (exclusive of mail coaches,) instead of 14, the number formerly employed. The newspapers have been trebled, while in two years, (1827 to 1829) the revenue derived from the duty on advertisements, (above two thousand pounds) is a decided proof of the augmentation of business.

." In 1824, the first steam-vessels were established between England and Ireland. “In 1830, there are forty-two trading steam-vessels between England and Ireland, carrying on a perpetual and rapid commer cial intercourse...The result of which is, that every product of farming economy finds a direct and wealthy market, giving encouragement to every species of industry and rural management that can be exercised upon the smallest tenement, as appears by the evidence given before the committee of the Commons, where it was stated, that in the course of one day, there have been shipped from the port of Dublin, ten tons weight of live and dead poultry, and fifty tons weight of eggs; and that in the course of five years, there had been exported from Dublin in eggs alone, to the value of £273,000.

"From these accounts, we may judge of the immense quantity of English money annually brought into Ireland in exchange for the general products of her soil, when such sums are acquired by her minor productions, which belong exclusively to the females of families..

Brief Outline of the Evidences of the Christian
Religion. The Divine Origin of Christianity.
London Religious Tract Society. 1830.

These are two of the publications issued by the excellent society for distributing religious tracts, and are intended to meet the pestilential influence of the infidelity spreading among the lower classes in England. It is difficult to account for the quiescence with which the magistrates of London have suffered the abominable and blasphemous orgies of atheism to be celebrated at the London Rotunda, under the direction of the wretched maniac, Taylor, and the more wretched and ignorant Car

VOL XI.

lisle; but it seems obvious that it is the duty of all to supply, by moral means, the deficiency of civil authority. Both the little works are excellent, but we think not sufficiently calculated for the lower orders. The first is a well executed condensation of the arguments in defence of revelation, and we can recommend it as being an excellent manual; it is of American origin, and has been eminently useful in that country. We trust a similar blessing will follow its distribution on this side of the Atlantic, and that it will be followed up by the laborious ministerial exertions of the clergy, who can best apply the great truths of the Gospel, Awful indeed would be the state of England, if it were to be judged of from the exertions making by Satan's emissaries; but these exertions are the struggles of the "strong man," who is now feeling that "a stronger than him is entering into his house," and we trust will speedily restrain his power,. and spoil him of his wretched captives. Variations of Popery. By Samuel Edgar. Dublin,

Curry and Co. Belfast, Jellett-1831. We intended, and do still intend, if possible, next month to give an enlarged review of this work; which, indeed, deserves our amplest consideration and commendation. And we shall only now say, that as Christian Examiners, and as having commenced our periodical with the express purpose of carrying on the great controversy with the Church of Rome, we rejoice in this ample, laborious, and able publication--which has, in a great measure, supplied a desideratum in Protestant controversy-an answer to Bossuet's Variations, and Milner's End of Controversy. The book, alas, wants an index. Oh, that every theologian and controversialist who ventures to come before the public with a close printed octavo volume, could be brought to consider that his work is altogether unwieldy or 'deficient without an index. Our old father's in theology-the Jewells, the Willetts, the Taylors, the Ushers, ought to teach our modern scholars, to have more mercy on their readers, and also, we speak feelingly, on their reviewers.

The Outcast, a Story of the Modern Reformation. Second Edition. Curry and Co. Dublin; Hurst and Chance, London.

This little work is written by one who experimentally knows what it is to be persecuted for religion's sake. He is one, we believe, who having been an outcast himself, can best tell what an outcast upon the world has to suffer and undergo.

A Protestant,let him conmix as intimately as may be with Roman Catholics-let him associate and interchange all neighbourly courtesies, yet he cannot know, and cannot describe the power which Romanism has over its votaries; the blow it gives to opinion, the direction it gives to thoughts, the influence it has on the hopes, the motives, 2 G