Supreme Court held, that the judicial power, under the Constitution, applied equally to suits brought by, and suits brought against a State. All the learned judges, on that occasion, delivered opinions, containing the grounds of their respective judgements. It is not my intention to go over these grounds, although they are stated with great ability and legal learning, and exhibit a very thorough mastery of the whole subject. The decision created general alarm among the States; and an amendment was proposed, and ratified by the States, by which the power was entirely taken away, so far as it regards suits brought against a State. It is in the following words : "The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law, or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States, by citizens of another State, or by citizens, or subjects of any foreign State." This amendment was construed to include suits then pending, as well as suits to be commenced thereafter; and, accordingly, all the suits then pending were dismissed, without any further adjudication.

§ 338. Since this amendment has been made, a question of equal importance has arisen; and that is, whether the amendment applies to original suits only, brought against a State, leaving the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in its full vigor over all constitutional questions, arising in the progress of any suit brought by a State, in any State court, against any private citizen or alien. But this question will more properly come under review, when we are considering the nature and extent of the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. At present, it is only necessary to state, that it has been solemnly adjudged, that the amendment applies only to original suits against a State; and does not touch the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to re-examine, on an appeal or writ of error, a judgement or decree rendered in any State court, in a suit brought originally by a State against any private person.

§ 339. Another inquiry, suggested by the original clause, as well as by the amendinent, is, when a State is

itself of, or to exempt itself from, the operation of the jurisdiction conferred by the Constitution. To such an inquiry, the proper answer is, that a State, in the sense of the Constitution, is a party only, when it is on the record as such; and it sues, or is sued in its political capacity. It is not sufficient, that it may have an interest in a suit between other persons, or that its rights, powers, privileges, or duties, may come therein incidentally in question. It must be in terms a plaintiff or defendant, so that the judgement, or decree, may be binding upon it, as it is in common suits, binding upon parties and privies. The point arose in an early stage of the government, in a suit between private persons, where one party asserted the land in controversy to be in Connecticut, and the other in New York; and the court held, that neither State could be considered as a party. It has been again discussed in some late cases; and the doctrine now firmly established is, that a State is not a party in the sense of the Constitution, unless it appears on the record, as such, either as plaintiff or defendant. It is not sufficient, that it may have an interest in the cause, or that the parties before the Court are sued for acts done, as agents of the State. In short, the very immunity of a State from being made a party, constitutes, or may constitute, a solid ground, why the suit should be maintained against other parties, who act as its agents, or claim under its title ; although otherwise, as the principal, it might be fit, that the State should be made a party upon the common principles of a court of equity.

The

§ 340. The same principle applies to cases, where a State has an interest in a corporation; as, when it is a stockholder in an incorporated bank, the corporation is still suable, although the State, as such, is exempted from any action. The State does not, by becoming a corporator, identify itself with the corporation. bank, in such a case, is not the State, although the State holds an interest in it. Nor will it make any difference in the case, that the State has the sole interest in the corporation, if in fact it creates other persons corporators.

by an act of Congress to the postmaster-general, to bring suits in his official capacity. In such suits, the United States are not understood to be a party, although the suits solely regard their interests. The postmaster-general does not, in such cases, sue under the clause giving jurisdiction, "in controversies, to which the United States shall be a party;" but under the clause extending the jurisdiction to cases arising under the laws of the United States.

§ 341. It may, then, be laid down, as a rule, which admits of no exception, that, in all cases under the Constitution of the United States, where jurisdiction depends upon the party, it is the party named on the record. Consequently the amendment, above referred to, which restrains the jurisdiction granted by the Constitution over suits against States, is of necessity limited to those suits, in which a State is a party on the record. The amendment has its full effect, if the Constitution is construed, as it would have been construed, had the jurisdiction never been extended to suits brought against a State by the citizens of another State, or by aliens.

§ 342. Next: "Controversies between citizens of different States." Although the necessity of this power may not stand upon grounds quite as strong, as some of the preceding, there are high motives of state policy and public justice, by which it can be clearly vindicated. There are many cases, in which such a power may be indispensable, or in the highest degree expedient, to carry into effect some of the privileges and immunities conferred, and some of the prohibitions upon States expressly declared, in the Constitution. For example: It is declared, that "the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens of the several States." Suppose an attempt is made to evade, or withhold these privileges and immunities, would it not be right to allow the party aggrieved an opportunity of claiming them, in a contest with a citizen of the State, before a tribunal, at once national and impartial? Suppose a State should pass a tender law, or law impairing the obligation of private contracts, or should, in the course of its legislation, grant unconstitutional preferences to its own

citizens, is it not clear, that the jurisdiction to enforce the obligations of the Constitution, in such cases, ought to be confided to the national tribunals? These cases are not purely imaginary. They have actually occurred; and inay again occur, under peculiar circumstances, in the course of State legislation. What was the fact under the Confederation? Each State was obliged to acquiesce in the degree of justice, which another State might choose to yield to its citizens. There was not only danger of animosities growing up from this source; but, in point of fact, there did grow up retaliatory legislation, to meet such real or imagined grievances.

§ 343. Nothing can conduce more to general harmony and confidence among all the States, than a consciousness, that controversies are not exclusively to be decided by the State tribunals; but may, at the election of the party, be brought before the National tribunals. Besides; it cannot escape observation, that the judges in different States hold their offices by a very different tenure. Some hold during good behavior; some for a term of years; some for a single year; some are irremovable, except upon impeachment; and others may be removed upon address of the Legislature. Under such circumstances, it cannot but be presumed, that there may arise a course of State policy, or State legislation, exceedingly injurious to the interests of the citizens of other States, both as to real and to personal property. It would require an uncommon exercise of candor or credulity to affirm, that, in cases of this sort, all the State tribunals would be wholly without State prejudice, or State feelings; or, that they would be as earnest in resisting the encroachments of State authority upon the just rights, and interests of the citizens of other States, as a tribunal differently constituted, and wholly independent of State authority. And, if justice should be as fairly and as firmly administered in the former, as in the latter, still the mischiefs would be most serious, if the public opinion did not indulge such a belief. Justice, in cases of this sort, should not only be above all reproach, but above all suspicion. The sources

numerous, without leaving open one so copious and constant, as the belief, or the dread, of wrong in the administration of State justice. Besides; if the public confidence should continue to follow the State tribunals, (as in many cases it doubtless will,) the provision will become inert and harmless; for, as the party will have his election of the forum, he will not be inclined to desert the State courts, unless for some sound reason, founded either in the nature of his cause, or in the influence of State prejudices. On the other hand, there can be no real danger of injustice to the other side in the decisions of the National tribunals; because the cause must still be decided upon the true principles of the local law, and not by any foreign jurisprudence. There is another circumstance of no small importance, as a matter of policy; and that is, the tendency of such a power to increase the confidence and credit between the commercial and agricultural States. No man can be insensible to the value, in promoting credit, of the belief of there being a prompt, efficient, and impartial administration of justice in enforcing contracts.

§344. The next inquiry, growing out of this part of the clause, is, who are to be deemed citizens of different States, within the meaning of it. Are all persons born. within a State to be always deemed citizens of that State, notwithstanding any change of domicil? Or does their citizenship change with their change of domicil? The answer to this inquiry is equally plain and satisfactory. The Constitution having declared, that the citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States, every person, who is a citizen of one State, and removes into another, with the intention of taking up his residence and inhabitancy there, becomes ipso facto a citizen of the State, where he resides; and he then ceases to be a citizen of the State, from which he has removed his residence. course, when he gives up his new residence, or domicil, and returns to his native, or other State residence or domicil, he reacquires the character of the latter. What circumstances shall constitute such a change of residence or

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