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The combined total included ships of the following nationalities: 33 Dutch, 33 Italian, 24 Norwegian, 9 United States, 8 Danish, 7 Greek, 4 Belgian, and 4 Swedish. In 68 cases entire cargoes were reported to have been released, either on first consideration or after inquiries.

CONVOY SYSTEM

In peacetime a ship sails as soon as she is loaded. In wartime, however, a ship of a belligerent country, or of a nonbelligerent country accepting naval escort, must wait for others until there are sufficient for a convoy. Moreover, in peacetime each ship proceeds at its normal full speed. The speed of a convoy, in contrast, is limited to that of the slowest ship. Thus a convoy inevitably entails delays, although these may be reduced appreciably by close cooperation between the port convoy officer and the port authorities, as well as by efficient organization of convoys. Eight- or 10-knot tramps, for example, are not included in the same convoy with liners of 15 knots or more, and, wherever possible, exceptionally fast vessels are provided with a special escort.

Extra ships are needed to compensate for the decline in the number of voyages made by each ship as a result of the convoy system. For instance, a 10-knot ship, normally taking 40 days on a transatlantic voyage from St. John, N. B., to Europe and return is said to require about 53 days under convoy; and such a ship on a similar voyage between Baltimore and Europe will be 63 days en route as compared with 43 days in peacetime. Correspondingly, an 18-knot vessel on the New York run will take about 27 days in peacetime and 36 days in convoy, but at its slowest in convoy the voyage may be as long as 52 days.

TREND OF RATES

While the trend of ocean freight rates following the outbreak of the European war in 1939 was inevitably upward, it varied greatly according to the particular conditions on specific routes. Thus, for instance, there was the natural tendency for rates on traffic to and from the European combat area to exceed those effective elsewhere, although the former were subject to some measure of state control in both neutral and belligerent countries within the combat area. In those countries, especially, there was apparent the influence on rates of the existence of merchant fleets under the national flag.4 This is not to minimize the effect of the possession of merchant fleets by countries remote from the combat area. The United States illustrates this point. Increases in rates on routes between this country and other neutral countries outside the combat area have been comparatively moderate where American subsidized lines have participated to a large extent in the trade. For instance, the rates on southbound liner traffic from the Atlantic seaboard of the United States to the east coast of South America increased by only about 20 percent from the outbreak of the war in 1939 to May 1940, whereas the rates on coal over the same route increased by as much as 260 percent.

Neither the United States nor Brazil had the tramp vessels available for the transport of coal and had to depend upon foreign shipping-competing therefor in the world freight market.

4 A number of governments undertook to fix maximum rates on commodities essential to the life of the State and carried in national vessels.

WORLD TREND

The general trend of freights throughout the world is rather strikingly portrayed by the following graph of time charter rates published in Lloyd's List and Shipping Gazette, covering the period from the World War of 1914 to the European war of 1939. Tabular illustrations for a number of individual countries, especially the United States, appear later in this study, in the sections dealing with particular countries.

TIME CHARTER RATES

The accompanying chart shows the fluctuations in the average rates paid for cargo tonnage of all sizes for each quarter of the years from 1914 to 1939, together with the average rate for each year and its percentage as compared with 1900.

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25s

62-87 231-73 505-98 705-38 707-78 513-17 418-56 123-59 109-58 90-41 88-62 63-47 84-43 88-62 76-64 80-23 58-68 63-47 58-68 53-89 53-89 55-09 61-07 119-76 76-04 130-53
PERCENTAGES ON THE BASIS OF 1929 BEING PAR
73-13 79-10 73-13 67-16 67-16 68-65 76-11 149-25 94-77 162-68 25s

ANNUAL AVERAGES (1900 HAVING BEEN 6/11%)

4/42 16/11⁄2 35/22 49/1 49/3 35/2229/1/2 8/7/2 7/7/2 6/32 6/2 4/5 5/102 6/2/2 5/4 5/1 4/1 4/5 4/1 3/9 3/9 3/10 4/3 8/4 5/3/2 9/1

20s

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1914 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 D.D.40-339

Trend of Rates.

[NOTE. It has for some time been recognized by those engaged in the shipping trade that the rates ruling for "time charter" are the most accurate indexes to the general level of freights. This chart has been compiled in an endeavor to reach a basis more accurate or, as it is perhaps wiser to say when dealing with so complex a subject as the freight markets of the world, less inaccurate than that upon which such statistics are usually founded, for they do not (and indeed cannot) take into account a number of important trades which are covered by these "time charter" figures.

In arriving at the results given herein, reports of many thousands of fixtures have been utilized, covering those of vessels of all sizes from about 1,000 tons to 10,000-12,000 deadweight tons for all periods from a few weeks to 2 or 3 years, and trades varying from that of coasting round the British Isles to running across the Pacific. An average has been calculated for each three months of all the rates reported to have been paid within these wide limits, which average, it is believed, represents, with as little inaccuracy as possible, the general level of freights.

It should be mentioned, however, that during war the quarterly averages are distorted, as the arrivals of the mails are erratic, so that the news is sometimes received all in one quarter of a large number of charters arranged abroad of foreign steamers at rates, of course, immeasurably higher than those done in this, country which would normally have been distributed over two or three quarters, and a similar effect has been produced by the fluctuations in the exchanges during the past few years.

The process used is crude and claims only one merit, that of catholicity. But to the adoption of methods purporting to insure greater precision there are so many and such great obstacles that possibly the less ambitious means are in the end as efficacious.]

GENERAL SUMMARY OF CONTROL MEASURES

As pointed out in the Foreword, the developments which have taken place since the outbreak of the European war in 1939 have taken the form mainly of state control, since it has become imperative for the governments of belligerent states, and of neutral states in some instances, to assume emergency control over rates, at least on commodities essential to the life of those states, carried in national vessels. The United Kingdom, for instance, according to a statement by the Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, has scrapped the working of the ordinary economic system. It has assumed control of oversea supplies, war production, foreign exchange, and shipping. Shipping has been requisitioned, but not taken away from the owners, who have retained the management, providing and paying the crews, obtaining stores, etc. The system of requisitioning has superseded that of licensing originally adopted and is said to have changed the negative system (where the Ministry had only power to say "no" to a contemplated voyage) to a positive system which enabled the Ministry to plan ahead after considering the Government's program as a whole in relation to the ships available. In commenting on the rates of hire to be paid British shipowners, the Minister of Shipping has stated that the rates would be fixed with the object of fairly covering owners' costs and making provision for depreciation and a reasonable return on capital. The rates, however, would not include provision for meeting losses or for building up reserves apart from the normal allowance for depreciation.

Less far-reaching measures have been taken by other countries, including France, which, like Scandinavian countries, has taken steps to prevent rates being increased unduly, either by subjecting the rateschedules as a whole to Government approval or by fixing actual or maximum rates on certain basic commodities, such as coal, grain, and sugar.

Wartime transition from private to Government control is further illustrated by the suspension of such organizations as the Tramp Shipping Administrative Committee and the International Tanker Pool as well as numerous liner conferences. As regards the above-mentioned committee, the following official circular was issued on September 4, 1939, from the headquarters at London:

In view of the international situation, the Tramp Shipping Administrative Committee have, after consultation with the Board of Trade, decided that, as from the date and time of the issue of this notice, the regulations attendant upon the Minimum Freight Schemes for the trades from the River Plate; St. Lawrence and Northern Range U. S. A. Ports (including Halifax and St. John N. B.); Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Ports; and Australian Ports; are temporarily suspended.

The Tramp Shipping Administrative Committee will remain in being, at the disposal of His Majesty's Government and the Shipping Industry, for consultation on any matters appertaining to the freight markets, or on any other matters concerning which their services may be required.

Similarly, the following item in the Petroleum Zeitschrift, published at Berlin on September 15, 1939, tells of the discontinuance of the International Tanker Pool:

A further consequence of the political situation is the dissolution of the International Tanker Pool, which has just been reported from London. As, for all practical purposes, there are no longer any idle tankers at the present moment, naturally any occasion for the maintenance of special protective measures for tanker owners ceases. For the period of its existence it can be conceded at the start that the pool just terminated contributed very much to the maintenance of an orderly market in tanker navigation; and its organizer and leader, H. T. Schierwater, has won lasting renown in this connection.

Details regarding developments in particular countries are furnished in the following chapters.

CONTROL MEASURES IN PARTICULAR COUNTRIES

UNITED STATES

Thus far, no special wartime measures have been taken in this country relating directly to the control of ocean freight rates in foreign trade. The need for such measures has been lessened, if not obviated, by the existence of legislation vesting rather comprehensive regulatory authority in the Maritime Commission. This legislation and its administration have been dealt with at length in Trade Promotion Series No. 185, entitled "Control of Ocean Freight Rates in Foreign Trade,' published by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce in 1938, and, of course, in the various reports issued by the Maritime Com

mission.

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The policy of the United States Government has been to subject carriers engaged in the foreign trade of the United States to as few restrictions as possible with respect to their freight rates and shipping practices. Regulatory control has been established only when the public welfare has seemed to require it and has then been kept to the minimum, although general supervision has been maintained for the purpose of checking and correcting unfair practices so far as possible.

The shipping laws of the United States apply only to common carriers and with respect thereto specifically recognize the necessity for dependable ocean transportation services. Regular lines, therefore, have been encouraged to enter into conference agreements, made lawful under the various acts, and it has been the policy to give such lines serving United States foreign trade all the protection provided

by such laws. In this respect, however, vessels of foreign and of United States registry have been treated alike.

Since the publication of Trade Promotion Series No. 185, some further organization of shippers has taken place into what may be termed shippers' conferences. Especially noteworthy is the establishment of the Pacific Fruit Exporters Council, which is composed of export shippers doing business in the three Pacific Coast States of Washington, Oregon, California, and in the Canadian Province of British Columbia. The following is a description of the council's functions and purposes as extracted from its articles of incorporation:

The object, business, and pursuit of this corporation shall be and is to establish and maintain fair and equitable standards in the fresh-fruit industry with a view to promoting the common welfare of the industry and the public good; to promote the better acquaintance of its members; to keep itself informed on all problems affecting the business of its members; to negotiate transportation rates and terms; to negotiate for service in loading and unloading fresh fruit; to charter vessels for the transportation of the cargoes of its members, provided that no member who does not contract for space on such a vessel shall be made to bear, by assessment or otherwise, any part of the expense in connection with the chartering of such vessel; to negotiate for issuance of shipping papers in regard to regulations connected with shipment of fresh fruit, and for any and all things regarding the transportation of fresh fruit to foreign markets; to analyze and investigate the problems affecting the industry; to make such statistical and fact-finding investigation as may seem desirable from time to time and to build up a body of information about the industry which will make possible an intelligent treatment of its problems, and to that end this corporation shall have power:

To enter into joint contracts in the name of the corporation for and on behalf of its members with reference to transportation rates, terms, and service in loading and unloading fresh fruit, issuance of shipping papers in regard to regulations connected with the shipment of fresh fruit, and for any and all other things regarding the transportation of fresh fruit to foreign markets.

Although, as already stated, no special wartime measures have been taken directly relating to the subject under consideration, it is appropriate to mention H. J. Resolution 519 of the 76th Congress, 3d Session, which suspended section 510 (g) of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936, thereby lifting restrictions on the use of vessels in the laid-up fleet of the Maritime Commission, until such time as the proclamation issued by the President on November 4, 1939, under section 1 (a) of the Neutrality Act of 1939, is revoked. That section of the Act, it will be recalled, provides for a proclamation by the President as to the existence of a state of war between foreign states.

The situation as regards the United States was eased considerably by the existence in this country of a large fleet of laid-up vessels at the outbreak of the war in 1939-which fleet totaled nearly 1,700,000 gross tons and comprised about 900,000 tons privately owned and 800,000 tons Government-owned. Thus, even after taking into account the withdrawals of American vessels from the European combat areas, there was 14 percent or 300,000 gross tons more shipping active under the American flag in foreign trade at the end of March 1940 than prior to the outbreak of the war in September 1939.

The following selection of rates in the foreign trade of the United States before and after the outbreak of the European war in September 1939 covers a wide range of routes and is indicative of the comparative increase in rates, especially as between routes that might be termed hazardous and routes that might be classed as relatively nonhazardous. It must be borne in mind, however, that trade with the United Kingdom was carried largely in British ships requisitioned by the Govern

See note at end of United States section (p. 17).

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