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2d. Armor and Armament.-The principles and structure of the new ordnance, and the thickness of armor to withstand such ordnance, have already been mentioned. One gun of given weight, and the armor necessary to protect both it and the machinery and men that work it, may be called a unit of power: the smallest vessel must carry this. The increase of power-the multiplication of these units-would appear to depend simply on the carrying-capacity of the vessel. A certain

is by no means certain that a fleet wooden vessel with engines and boilers well below water would not whip a slow and clumsy iron-clad with never so thick armor. Superior speed guarantees, 1st, choice of position, ability to attack the enemy's weak side, and to run out of range when overpowered; 2d, power as a ram, to disable any vessel which cannot turn and sail as rapidly; 3d, ability to run past forts almost without risk of being hit at all, at ordinary ranges, and to pass rapidly out of range of any slow vessels intended for harbor-speed is also necessary; and this would also seem defence. Indeed, the difficulty of hitting a highsided frigate-a most distinct mark-going at six or eight miles an hour, is so great that the admirals no longer fear to attack stone forts. But an

engine of warfare almost as little appreciated as the high speed which is its absolute condition, is the Ram. Two opposite and grave errors appear to prevail as to this class of vessels. 1st. The heads of slow-going iron-clads are loaded down with mighty prows of quadruple plates, when every European vessel, at least, every one that they are intended to punch, is several knots faster. 2d. In England, especially, the fathers gravely discuss the possibility of making a ship strong enough to act as a ram withoutgoing to pieces,-just as if it was going to be fired out of a gun! It is a notorious fact that light-timbered wooden riverboats have frequently run into heavy sea-going vessels, and into wharves, cutting chasms below water which no practicable pumping-power could counteract, without being themselves put in a sinking condition, and without damage to their machinery. The necessity of speed is to catch the enemy: a very slow movement will then disable him. 3d. It is urged that one ram, however fast, cannot sink a vessel, because even a slow ship can keep her broadside away from another's prow, and hence that there must be two or more fast rams for each vessel of the enemy. Of course, a very angular blow would be glanced; but the enemy's screw is a more vulnerable point than his side. If he presents his stern, in trying to shield his side, his locomotive powers may be disabled, and then he may be disposed of at the ram's leisure. But great facility in turning is also a feature of primary importance in all vessels designed to run down others. The most convenient means of accomplishing this is the use of an independent screw-propeller under each quarter. By backing one and driving the other ahead, the vessel is turned rapidly on her centro or heel, while a vessel with a single screw cannot change its direction without greatly shifting its position. This division of power also prevents the liability to disaster from the possible failure of one-half of the driving machinery. And since one screw cannot be of sufficient diameter to propel a vessel of light draft at a high speed, two screws enable the power to be doubled with the same draft. This excellent feature was well understood by Stevens, and adopted in his battery.

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to depend solely on the weight of engines and boilers that the vessel can sustain. Now, carrying-capacity is entirely a question of size. By doubling all the lineal dimensions of a vessel of given form, her capacity is increased eight-fold; that is to say, she can carry eight times as much weight of engines, boilers, armor, and guns. Meanwhile, her resistance is only quadrupled, so that to propel each ton of her weight requires but half the power necessary to propel each ton of the weight of a vessel of half the dimensions. Large dimensions, then, are an element of the greatest practicable power and speed. The objection to large vessels is their draft of water, which limits their use for harbor-work. Hence there must be a class of small vessels to cope only with the same class of enemies.

But the efficiency of war-vessels need not depend solely on their size. Indeed, a small vessel provided with the improvements to be mentioned would perhaps conquer a large vessel without them. 1st. Two or three times the locomotive power now developed may be obtained by the use of improved boilers and machinery occupying the same space and employing the same amount of the vessel's buoyancy. This is to be accomplished by carrying very much higher steam-pressure, employing simple surface-conde users, and maintaining a much higher rate of combustion and vaporization, in accordance with the principles already tested in the best commercial-marine practice. 2d. At least five and perhaps ten times the work can be got out of a given armament by loading and manoeuvring it faster, through the direct action of steam machinery. This subject is receiving special attention in America. Ericsson's and Coles's revolving gun-turrets, to make all the guns available on both sides of the ship or in any direction, dispense with half the armalaent necessary in the old broadside system. A rotating battery, designed by Mr. Julius King, of New Jersey, in which two or more guns are loading below deck while another in the same revolving frame, and covered by a shot-proof hool, may be trained, elevated, and fired above deck; Mr. E. A. Stevens's plan of elevating and lowering, by hydraulic machinery, the turn-table on which the gun-carriage is fixed, so that the gun can be fired above deck, and loaded and protected, e xcept at the moment of firing, below a shot-proof structure; and especially Mr. Stevens's arran gement

IRON-CLAD WAR-VESSELS.

for loading and cooling guns rapidly by simple | steam machinery,-these and other inventions in this direction (to be illustrated in detail in the forthcoming work referred to) are vastly increasing the power of small batteries. 3d. The concentration of armor practicable in other respects is especially feasible if the armament of small batteries can be made very powerful. We have observed that any armor that a C000-ton ship-say the Warrior-can carry from end to end is not proof against modern ordnance. But she could carry a Monitor turret six feet thick; and it is probable that many years will elapse before ordnance will be made to smash or pierce such protection. It must be remembered that many of the difficulties that menace the ordnance-makerfor instance, the unequal expansion of the metal by the heat of the explosion-are not encountered by the maker of armor. There must, of course, be a streak of armor at and extending a little below the water-line of any vessel, to prevent the entrance of water through shot-holes there, and the consequent sinking of the vessel. Bulkheads alone might not save her, as she is liable to be pierced in all her compartments. But there is no important reason for plating a ship ten or fifteen feet out of water from end to end, if she has a shotproof deck at the water-line. She must have such a deck somewhere, so that, while its position at the water-line adds no extra weight, it prevents, in connection with the armor below it, the entrance of water and shot to the vital parts of the structure. All the great expanse of inferior or useless armor thus dispensed with may be added to thicken the turret, or short casemate, or small battery, whatever it may be, and so make it invulnerable. In the Monitors this is accomplished by dispensing with the whole upper part of the hull, except 12 to 24 inches above the water-line. It may be that such vessels will prove sea-worthy: they are certainly well adapted to harbor-defence, always providing that they have great speed. Another plan is to omit a wide streak of armor between the water-line and the battery which may begin say 6 feet above water. Shot-proof passages leading from the parts below water to the battery would, of course, be required. Thus the thickness of the parts really needing protection could be more than doubled; and, since the vessel would be as high out of water as an ordinary seagoing steamer, she would be equally sea-worthy. The manner in which some of these principles of construction have been carried out will be noticed in a brief

Description of Prominent Iron-Clad Vessels, classified with reference to their protection. 1st. The Minotaur class (English, 3 vessels), CC21 tons, 300 feet long, 40 guns; the Royal Oak class (English, 5 vessels), 4045 tons, 277 feet long, 32 guns; the Valiant class (English, 2 vessels), 4063 tons, 275 feet long, 30 guns; and La Gloire class (French,

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15 vessels), 257 feet long, 36 guns, are plated from stem to stern, from main deck to 4 or 5 feet below water. 2d. The New Ironsides (American), 3250 tons, 240 feet long, 18 guns; the Achilles (English), 6039 tons, 380 feet long, 26 guns; the Favorite (English), 21C8 tons, 220 feet long, 8 guns; the Enterprise (English), 990 tons, 180 feet long, 4 guns; and the Solferino and Magenta (French), about 270 feet long, 26 casemate guns, are all plated from stem to stern for 3 to 5 feet above and the same below water, besides which the sides are plated to the upper deck amidships, forming central batteries or casemates which have plated bulkheads at their ends. The Achilles's casemate occupies 200 feet of her length amidships, and the New Ironsides's 170 feet. 3d. The Warrior and Black Prince (English), 6038 tons, 380 feet long, 26 protected guns, have casemates 200 feet long, plated from the upper deck to 5 feet below water, but they have no armor at the water-line forward and aft. All the above vessels carry the usual broadside guns. 4th. Ships with revolving turrets. The Roanoke (American), 205 feet long, has 3 turrets of 21 feet diameter inside, 9 feet height, and 11 inches thickness, carrying 6 15-inch guns. Of the two sea-going "Monitors," the Puritan is 340 feet long, 2 feet out of water, and carries 2 turrets 24 inches thick, and 4 15-inch guns; the Dictator is 320 feet long, and carries 1 turret and 2 15-inch guns. The smaller "Monitors," some 18 in number, carry 1 turret, like the Roanoke's, with 2 guns, and are about 200 feet long. The Royal Sovereign and Prince Albert (English), 230 feet long, are to carry respectively 5 and 6 turrets or cupolas on Captain Coles's plan. The guns, two in each turret, were intended to be 100-pdr. Armstrong rifled breech-loaders. All the vessels of the 4th class are completely plated from the upper deck to 4 or 5 feet below water, and from stem to stern, but are not as high out of water as the casemated ships; the hulls of the smaller " Monitors" are but 12 to 18 inches out of water in action. The Stevens Battery, 420 feet long, is of the 2d class as to the disposition of her armor. Her casemate is inclined, however, at an angle of 27; her guns are upon the top of it, instead of within it, and are to be protected. The iron-clad vessels on the Western rivers are of great beam and light draft. Their armor is usually inclined at about 45°, and is of the 2d class as to disposition.

Conclusions.-1st. The greater part of the naval armor now completed and constructing is not proof against various kinds of modern experi mental guns. 2d. While in America the official theory of progress in naval armament appears to be the superiority of cast-iron guns, small charges, and heavy shot at low velocities, the notorious fict upon which improvement proceeds in Europe is the superiority of steel guns, high charges, and light shot at excessive velocities. 3d. But the Americans were greatly in advance of the Euro

peans in all the appointments of horizontal shell- | system for sea-going as well as harbor vessels— firing at wooden walls; from which it may be in- would appear to be absolutely necessary. 6th. ferred that they will not be behind them in fight- High speed, to be attained chiefly by means of ing iron-clads, when the test comes, if Europeans improved steam machinery, and accompanied by should ever force that issue. 4th. Although the power of rapid turning, is essential to choice of difficulties in fabricating strong guns are more position, to decreasing the risk of being hit by the numerous and serious than those encountered by shot of an enemy, especially from his forts, and the iron-clad-ship builder, the present state and particularly in enabling a vessel to operate as a rapid improvement of experimental ordnance ram. 7th. The comparative merits of solid and should instruct us to prepare our vessels for laminated armor can only be certainly decided heavier blows than have yet been struck, and to after further experiments, although the former, avoid the costly mistakes of the English and as adopted by Europeans, is superior as far as the French, who, finding a certain protection prof facts inform us. 8th. But in the situation of against service guns, constructed navies only in armor-the chief consideration of all-the Ametime to find them completely vulnerable before ricans are certainly in advance, although the the new class of guns which their enemies can at principle of making a small battery at the same any time put into the service. 5th. Since the size of time invulnerable and as effective as an ordinary vessels, upon which alone depends their ability to large battery is nowhere completely carried out. carry over all the heavy armor thus rendered in- Indeed, this is the principle, as far as we can now dispensable, is limited by the depth of harbors, determine, upon which protection will be finally the concentration of armor-a perfectly feasible triumphant against attack.

THE UNITED STATES.

of delegates was called to meet at Philadelphia on the 14th of May, 1787, “for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation, and reporting such alterations and provisions therein as shall render the Federal Constitution adequate to the exigencies of the Government and the preservation of the Union." The CoNSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT was the result of the deliberations of this convention; for they adopted, on the 17th of September, 1787, that great and wise charter known as the Constitution of the United States. Eleven of the States having ratified this Constitution, Congress, on the 17th of September, 1788, resolved that it should go into operation on Wednesday, the 4th day of March, 1789.

THE existence of the United States of America as a separate and independent nation usually dates from July 4, 1776, when the second Continental Congress passed the Declaration of Independence, dissolving all connection with Great Britain. The colonies, however, were virtually under their own government from the time of the meeting of the second Continental Congress, May 10, 1775, which body continued its sittings during the greater part of the Revolutionary War, and had the general direction of affairs. The powers of this Congress were not defined,-there was no settled form of government; but, their authority being of a revolutionary or provisional character, they exercised such as the necessities of the times required. The REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT continued until the Confederation was organized, the It is under this Government-so just, so wise, articles for which were adopted by the Congress and so beneficent-that the people of the United as early as November 15, 1777, but were not finally States have lived for the last seventy-three years, ratified by all the Colonies until March 1, 1781. accomplishing a growth, a prosperity, and a power On the following day (March 2, 1781) Congress without a parallel in the annals of history, proassembled under the Confederation. The Cox-gressing, without check or abatement, in all that FEDERATE GOVERNMENT was intended to be per- gives greatness and happiness to a people, until petual; but it was soon found to be so defective, the outbreak of the present unhappy rebellion. inefficient, and even powerless, that a convention

I. EXECUTIVE GOVERNMENT.

The nineteenth Presidential term of four years since the establishment of the Government of the United States, under the Constitution adopted March 1, 1789, began on the 4th day of March, 1861, and it will expire on the 4th of March, 1865.

ABRAHAM LINCOLN, of Illinois, PRESIDENT.

John G. Nicolay, Private Secretary

William O. Stoddard, Private Secretary to sign Patents.........
HANNIBAL HAMLIN, of Maine, VICE-PRESIDENT...............................................................

Salary. $25,000

2,500

1,500

8,000

THE CABINET.

The following are the principal officers in the Executive Department of the Government, who form the Cabinet, and hold their offices at the will of the President.

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THE NATIONAL ALMANAC.

PRINCIPAL EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATIVE, AND JUDICIAL OFFICERS OF THE UNITED STATES FROM THE REVOLUTION TO THE PRESENT TIME.

Name.

I. UNDER THE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT.
Presidents of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1789.

State.

Peyton Randolph.. Va.
John Hancock...... Mass.
Henry Laurens..... S. C.
N. Y.
John Jay...
Sam'l Huntington. Conn.
Thomas McKean... Del.
Md.
John Hanson......

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Date of Ap-
pointment.

Nov. 4, 1782 1740 1824
Nov. 3, 1783 1744 1800
Nov. 30, 1786 1732 1794
June 6, 1786 1738 1796
1818
Jan. 22, 1788 1748 1810
Feb. 2, 1787

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Born.

Died.

1789-1797 1732 1799
1797-1801 1735 1826
1801-1809 1743 1826
1809-1817 1751 1837
1817-1825 1759 1831
1825-1829 1767 1848
1829-1837 1767 1845
1837-1841 1782 1862

Name.

State.:

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Va.

1841-1845 1790 1862

Tenn.

1845-1849 1795 1849

La.

William H. Harrison Ohio.
John Tyler......
James K. Polk.....
Zachary Taylor..
Millard Fillmore...... N. Y.
Franklin Pierce....... N. H.
James Buchanan...... Penn.
Abraham Lincoln..... III.

Vice-Presidents.

1849-1850 1784 1850 1850-1853 1800 1853-1857 1804 1857-18611791

1861-...... 1809

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