The white wines of Burgundy are less numerous, and, consequently, less generally known, than the others: but they maintain the highest rank among French white wines, and are not inferior to the red, either in aroma or flavour.

The entire annual produce of wine in Burgundy and Beaujolais may at present be esti mated, at an average, at nearly 3,000,000 hectolitres, of which about 750,000 suffice for the consumption of the inhabitants. Since the Revolution, the cultivation of the vine has been greatly extended in the province. Many of the new vineyards having necessarily been planted in comparatively unfavourable situations, a notion has been gaining ground that the wines of Burgundy were degenerating. This, however, is not the case. On the contrary, the quantity of bons crus, instead of being diminished, has increased considerably; though, as the supply of inferior wines has increased in a still greater degree, the fine wines bear a less proportion to the whole than they did previously to the Revolution.-(Jullien, p. 90.) The principal trade in Burgundy is carried on at Dijon, Gavrey, Châlons-sur-Saône, &c. Besides the above, France has a great variety of other excellent wines. Hermitage, Sauterne, St. Péry, &c. are well known in England; and deservedly enjoy, particularly the first, a high degree of reputation.

Account of the Quantity and Value of the Wines exported from France in 1831; distinguishing between those of the Gironde and those of other Departments, and between those exported in Casks and Bottles; and specifying the Quantity and Value of those sent to each Country.—(Administration des Douanes for 1831, p. 249.)

Exclusive of the above, there were exported from France, in the same year, 2,753,499 litres of vins de liqueurs, valued at 4,130,250 francs.

The total produce of the vineyards of France is estimated at about 35,000,000 hectolitres (77,000,000 Imp. gallons), worth 540,000,000 francs (21,600,0001.). We beg to refer the reader to the article BORDEAUX, for an account of the influence of the French system of commercial policy on this great department of industry.

Dispute as to the Comparative Merit of Champagne and Burgundy.—The question, whether the wines of Champagne or of Burgundy were entitled to the preference, was agitated during the reign of Louis XIV. with extraordinary keenness. The celebrated Charles Coffin, rector of the University of Beauvais, published, during this controversy, the classical ode, partly quoted above, in which Champagne is eulogised, and its superiority vindicated, with a spirit, vivacity, and delicacy worthy of the theme. The citizens of Rheims were not ungrateful to the poet; but liberally rewarded him with an appropriate and munificent donation of the wine he had so happily panegyrised. Gréneau wrote an ode in praise of Burgundy; but, unlike its subject, it was flat and insipid, and failed to procure any recompence to its author. The different pieces in this amusing controversy were collected and published in octavo, at Paris, in 1712.-(See Le Grand d'Aussy, Vie Privée des Français, tom. iii. p. 39., and the

Biographie Universelle, tom. ix. art. Coffin (Charles).) Erasmus attributes the restoration of his health to his having drunk liberally of Burgundy; and has eulogised it in the most extravagant terms. An epistle of his, quoted by Le Grand d'Aussy, shows that Falstaff and he could have spent an evening together less disagreeably than might have been supposed :-"Le premier qui enseigna l'art de faire ce vin (Bourgogne), ou qui en fit present, ne doit-il point passer plutôt pour nous avoir donné la vie que pour nous avoir gratifié d'une liqueur."-(Vie Privée des Français, tom. iii. p. 9.)

Consumption of French Wine in England. Discriminating Duties.-Owing to the intimate connection subsisting between England and France for several centuries after the Conquest, the wines of the latter were long in almost exclusive possession of the English market: but the extension of commerce gradually led to the introduction of other species; and in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., the dry white wines of Spain seem to have been held in the highest estimation. This, however, was only a temporary preference. Subsequently to the Restoration, the wines of France regained their former ascendancy. In 1687, their importations amounted to 15,518, in 1688 to 14,218, and in 1689 to 11,106 tuns. It is exceedingly doubtful whether so much as a single pipe of port had ever found its way to England previously to this period-(Henderson, p. 313.); and it is most probable that the wines of France would have continued to preserve their ascendancy in our markets, had not their importation been artificially

checked.

The trade with France had occasionally been prohibited previously to the accession of William III.; but it was not until 1693 that any distinction was made between the duties payable on French and other wines. But Louis XIV. having espoused the cause of the exiled family of Stuart, the British government, in the irritation of the moment, and without reflecting that the blow aimed at the French would infallibly recoil upon themselves, imposed, at the period above-mentioned, a discriminating duty of 81. a tun on French wines, and in 1697 increased to 331.! In consequence of this enormous augmentation of duty on French wines, the merchants began to import wine from Oporto as a substitute for the red wines of Bordeaux, excluded by the high duties. It is probable, however, that these discriminating duties would have been repealed as soon as the excitement which produced them had subsided, and that the trade would have returned to its old channels, had not the stipulations in the famous commercial treaty with Portugal, negotiated by Mr. Methuen in 1703, given them permanence. Such, however, was unluckily the case: for, according to this treaty, we bound ourselves to charge in future one third higher duties on the wines of France than on those of Portugal; the Portuguese, by way of compensation, binding themselves to admit our woollens into their markets in preference to those of other countries, at a fixed and invariable rate of duty.

Though very generally regarded at the time as the highest effort of diplomatic skill and address, the Methuen treaty was certainly founded on the narrowest views of national interest, and has proved, in no common degree, injurious to both parties, but especially to England. By binding ourselves to receive Portuguese wines for two thirds of the duty payable on those of France, we, in effect, gave the Portuguese growers a monopoly of the British market, and thereby attracted too great a proportion of the deficient capital of Portugal to the production of wine; while, on the other hand, we not only excluded one of the principal equivalents the French had to offer for our commodities, and proclaimed to the world that we considered it better to deal with two millions of poor beggarly customers, than with thirty millions of rich ones, but we also provoked the retaliation of the French, who forthwith excluded most of our articles from their markets!

The injurious effects of the regulations in the Methuen treaty were distinctly pointed out by Dr. Davenant and Mr. Hume. The latter, in his Essay on the Balance of Trade, published in 1752, says, "Our jealousy and hatred of France are without bounds. These passions have occasioned innumerable barriers and obstructions on commerce, where we are commonly accused of being the aggressors. But what have we gained by the bargain? We lost the French market for our woollen manufactures, and transferred the commerce of wine to Spain and Portugal, where we buy much worse liquor at a much higher price! There are few Englishmen who would not think their country absolutely ruined were French wine sold in England so cheap, and in such abundance, as to supplant ale and other homebrewed liquors. But, would we lay aside prejudice, it would not be difficult to prove that nothing could be more innocent; perhaps, more advantageous. Each new acre of vineyard planted in France, in order to supply England with wine, would make it requisite for the French to take an equivalent in English goods, by the sale of which we should be equally benefited."

In consequence of the preference so unwisely given to the wines of Portugal over those of France, -a preference continued, in defiance of every principle of sound policy and common sense, down to 1831,-the imports of French wine were for many years reduced to a mere trifle; and notwithstanding their increased consumption, occasioned by the reduction of the duties in 1825, the quantity made use of in 1833 did not exceed 232,500 gallons; while the consumption of Portuguese wines amounts to about 2,600,000 Imperial gallons! This is the most striking example, perhaps, in the history of commerce, of the influence of customs duties in diverting trades into new channels, and altering the taste of a people. All but the most opulent classes having been compelled, for a long series of years, either to renounce wine, or to use port, the taste for the latter has been firmly rooted; the beverage that was originally forced upon us by necessity having become congenial from habit. We have little doubt, however, now that the discriminating duty in favour of port is abolished, that the excellence of the French wines will ultimately regain for them some portion of that favour in the English market they formerly enjoyed.*

Madeira,-so called from the island of that name,—is a wine that has long been in extensive use in this and other countries. Plants of the vine were conveyed from Crete to Madeira in 1421, and have succeeded extremely well. There is a considerable difference in the flavour and other qualities of the wines of Madeira: the best are produced on the south side of the island. Though naturally strong, they receive an addition of brandy when racked from the vessels in which they have been fermented, and another portion is thrown in previously to their exportation. This is said to be required to sustain the wine in the high temperature to which it is subjected in its passage to and from India and China, to which large quantities of it are sent; it being found that it is mellowed, and its flavour materially improved by the voyage. It does not, however, necessarily follow, that the wines which have made the longest voyages are always the best. Much must obviously depend on the original quality of the wine; and many of the parcels selected to be sent to India are so inferior, that the wine, when brought to London, does not rank so high as that which has been imported direct. But when the parcel sent out has been well chosen, it is very much

*The mischievous operation of the Methuen treaty, and of the discriminating duty on French wines, were very strikingly exhibited by Mr. Hyde Villiers, in his able speech on the 15th of June, 1830. It is highly deserving of the reader's attention. 94

VOL. II.-3 R

matured and improved by the voyage; and it not only fetches a higher price, but is in all respects superior to the direct importations. Most of the adventitious spirit is dissipated in the course of the Indian voyage.

Madeira wines may be kept for a very long period. "Like the ancient vintages of the Surrentine hills, they are truly firmissima vina, retaining their qualities unimpaired in both extremes of climate, suffering no decay, and constantly improving as they advance in age. Indeed, they cannot be pronounced in condition until they have been kept for 10 years in the wood, and afterwards allowed to mellow nearly twice that time in bottle: and even then they will hardly have reached the utmost perfection of which they are susceptible. When of good quality, and matured as above described, they lose all their original harshness, and acquire that agreeable pungency, that bitter sweetishness, which was so highly prized in the choicest wines of antiquity; uniting great strength and richness of flavour with an exceedingly fragrant and diffusible aroma. The nutty taste, which is often very marked, is not communicated, as some have imagined, by means of bitter almonds, but is inherent in the wine." (Henderson, p. 253.)

The wines of Madeira have latterly fallen into disrepute in England. The growth of the island is very limited-not exceeding 20,000 pipes, of which a considerable quantity goes to the West Indies and America. Hence, when Madeira was a fashionable wine in England, every sort of deception was practised with respect to it, and large quantities of spurious trash were disposed of for the genuine vintage of the island. This naturally brought the wine into discredit; so that sherry has been for several years the fashionable white wine. It is difficult, however, to imagine that adulteration was ever practised to a greater extent upon Madeira than it is now practised upon sherry. The quantity entered for home consumption in 1827 amounted to 308,295 gallons, whereas the quantity entered for home consumption in 1833 only amounted to 161,042 gallons.

Malmsey, a very rich luscious species of the Madeira, is made from grapes grown on rocky grounds exposed to the full influence of the sun's rays, and allowed to remain on the vine till they are over-ripe.

The trade in Madeira wine is carried on at Funchal, the capital of the island, in lat. 32° 37′ N., lon. 17° 6' W. Weights and Measures same as Lisbon.

Teneriffe wine,-so called from the island of that name,-resembles Madeira, and is not unfrequently substituted in its place; but it wants the full body and rich flavour of the best growths of Madeira.

German Wines.—The wines of Germany imported into England are principally produced on the banks of the Rhine and the Moselle. The Rhine wines constitute a distinct order by themselves. They are drier than the French white wines, and are characterised by a delicate flavour and aroma, called in the country gäre, which is quite peculiar to them, and of which it would, therefore, be in vain to attempt the description. A notion prevails that they are naturally acid; and the inferior kinds, no doubt, are so: but this is not the constant character of the Rhine wines, which in good years have no perceptible acidity in the taste, at least not more than is common to them with the growths of warmer regions. Their chief distinction is their extreme durability. The wines made in warm dry years are always in great demand, and fetch very high prices.

The Johannisberger stands at the head of the Rhine wines. It has a very choice flavour and perfume, and is characterised by an almost total want of acidity. The vineyard is the property of Prince Metternich. The Steinberger ranks next to the Johannisberger. It is the strongest of all the Rhenish wines, and in favourable years has much flavour and delicacy.

The produce of certain vineyards on the banks of the Moselle, is of superior quality. The better sorts are clear and dry, with a light pleasant flavour and high aroma; but they sometimes contract a slaty taste, from the strata on which they grow. They arrive at maturity in 5 or 6 years; though when made in a favourable season, they will keep twice that time, without experiencing any deterioration.--(Henderson, p. 226.)

Tokay,- --so called from a town in Hungary, near which it is produced,--is but little known in England. It is luscious, possessing at the same time a high degree of flavour and aroma. It is scarce and dear; and very apt to be counterfeited.

Marsala,--The Sicilian white wine called Marsala, from the town (the ancient Lilyboum) whence it is shipped, and near which it is made, is now pretty largely consumed in England'; the entries for home consumption having increased from 79,686 gallons in 1823, to 312,993 in 1833; an extraordinary increase, particularly when it is considered that during the same period the consumption of most sorts of wine has been nearly stationary. Marsala is a dry wine; the best qualities closely resembling the lighter sorts of Madeira; but the increasing demand for it seems to be owing as much to its cheapness as to any peculiarity of quality. It is, however, an agreeable dinner wine. Marsala has been brought to its present state of perfection and repute by the care and exertions of 2 Englishmen, the Messrs. Woodhouse, established in Sicily, who have an extensive factory in the neighbourhood of Marsala. The wine is shipped in large quantities for America; whence a considerable quantity is again

conveyed to the West Indies, where it is not unfrequently disposed of as real Madeira.

With the exception of Marsala, very little wine either of Sicily or Italy is imported into England. The wines of those countries are, indeed, without, perhaps, a single exception, very inferior to those of France. The natives bestow no care upon the culture of the vine; and their ignorance, obstinacy, and want of skill in the preparation of wine, are said to be almost incredible. In some districts, the art is, no doubt, better understood than in others; but had the Falernian, Cecuban, and other famous ancient wines, not been incomparably better than the best of those that are now produced, they never would have elicited the glowing panegyrics of Horace.

Wines of Greece and Cyprus.-The soil in most parts of Greece and the Grecian islands is admirably fitted for the growth of the vine; and, in antiquity, they produced some of the choicest wines. But the rapacity of the Turks, and the insecurity of person and property that has always prevailed under their miserable government, has effectually prevented the careful cultivation of the vine; and has occasioned, in many places, its total abandonment. It may, however, be fairly presumed, now that Greece has emancipated herself from the iron yoke of her oppressors, that the culture of the vine will attract some portion of that attention to which it is justly entitled; and that, at no distant period, wine will form an important article of export from Greece.

In

Nowhere, perhaps, has the destructive influence of Turkish barbarism and misgovernment been so apparent as in Candia and Cyprus. While these 2 renowned and noble islands were possessed by the Venetians, they supplied all Europe with the choicest dessert wines. Bacci affirms, that towards the end of the 16th century, Candia sent annually 200,000 casks of malmsey to the Adriatic; whereas at present it hardly produces sufficient to supply the wants of its few impoverished inhabitants. (Henderson, p. 243.) The wines of Cyprus, particularly those produced from the vineyard called the Commandery, from its having belonged to the Knights of Malta, were still more highly esteemed than those of Crete. the earlier part of last century, the total produce of the vintage of the island was supposed to amount to above 2,000,000 gallons, of which nearly was exported; but now, the wine grown and exported does not amount to 1-10th part of these quantities! The oppression of which they have been the victims, has reduced the peasantry to the extreme of indigence. The present population of the island is not supposed to exceed 60,000,-a number insufficient to have peopled one of its many ancient cities; and small as this number is, it is constantly diminishing by the inhabitants availing themselves of every opportunity of emigrating. Recently Cyprus has passed into the hands of Mohammed Ali; but unless the Pacha establishes a different government in it from what he has established in Egypt, the miserable inhabitants will gain nothing by the change. (There is a brief but good account of Cyprus in Kinneir's Travels in Asia Minor, &c. pp. 176-197.)

Cape Wines. Of the remaining wines imported into England, those of the Cape of Good Hope form the largest proportion; the quantity annually entered for home consumption being about 540,000 Imperial gallons. The famous Constantia wine is the produce of 2 contiguous farms of that name, at the base of Table Mountain, between 8 and 9 miles from Cape Town. The wine is very rich and luscious; though, according to Dr. Henderson, it yields, in point of flavour and aroma, to the muscadine wines of Languedoc and Roussillon. But, with this exception, most of the Cape wines brought to England have an earthy disagreeable taste, are often acid, want flavour and aroma, and are, in fact, altogether execrable. And yet this vile trash, being the produce of a British possession, enjoys peculiar advantages in our markets; for while the duty on Cape wine is only 2s. 9d. a gallon, that on all other wines is 5s. 6d. The consequences of this unjust preference are doubly mischievous: in the first place it forces the importation of an article of which little is directly consumed, but which is extensively employed as a convenient menstruum for adulterating and degrading sherry, Madeira, and other good wines; and, in the second place, it prevents the improvement of the wine; for, while the legislature thinks fit to give a bounty on the importation of so inferior an article, is it to be supposed that the colonists should exert themselves to produce any thing better? It is not easy to imagine a more preposterous and absurd regulation. The act enforcing it ought to be entitled, an act for the adulteration of wines in Great Britain, and for encouraging the growth of bad wine in the Cape colony !

Consumption of Wine in Great Britain. Duties.-We have repeatedly had occasion, in the course of this work, to call the reader's attention to the injurious operation of unequal and exorbitant duties. Perhaps, however, the trade in wine has suffered more from this cause than any other department of industry. We have already endeavoured to point out some of the effects resulting from the inequality of the duties, or from the preference so long given to the inferior wines of Portugal and Spain over the superior wines of France. But the exorbitance of the duties was, if possible, still more objectionable than the partial principle on which they were imposed. It appears from the subjoined Table, that during the 3 years ending with 1792, when the duty on French wines was 3s. 9d., and on Portuguese 2s. 6d. per wine gallon, the consumption in Great Britain amounted, at an average, to 7,410,947 gallons a year, producing about 900,000l. of revenue. It is probable, had the increase taken place gradually, that these duties might have been doubled without any material diminution of consumption But in 1795 and 1796 they were raised to 8s. 6d. per gallon on French, and to 5s. 84d. per gallon on

Portuguese and Spanish wine; and the consequence of this sudden and inordinate increase, as exhibited in the Table, was, that the consumption fell from nearly 7,000,000 gallons in 1795, to 5,732,383 gallons in 1796, and to 3,970,901 in 1797! But this unanswerable demonstration of the ruinous effects of heavy and sudden additions to the duties did not prevent them being raised, in 1804, to 11s. 5d. on French, and to 7s. 8d. on Portuguese and Spanish wine. They continued at this rate till 1825; and such was their influence, that, notwithstanding the vast increase of wealth and population since 1790, and the general improvement in the style of living, the total consumption of wine, during the 3 years ending with 1824, amounted, at an average, to only 5,248,767 gallons a year; being no less than 2,162,180 gallons under the annual consumption of the 3 years ending with 1792! It may, therefore, be truly said, making allowance for the increase of population, that the consumption of wine in Great Britain fell off more than fifty per cent. between 1790 and 1824!

Had Mr. Vansittart continued in power, it is difficult to say when this system might have terminated; but no sooner had Mr. Robinson (now Lord Ripon) become Chancellor of the Exchequer, than he resolved upon the effectual reduction of the wine duties. In pursuance of this wise determination, Mr. Robinson took, in 1825, nearly 50 per cent. from the previously existing duties; and notwithstanding the spirit duties were at the same time reduced in a still greater degree, the consumption of wine in Great Britain has been increased from little more than 4,150,000 to about 5,200,000 Imperial gallons, while the loss of revenue has been but inconsiderable. We are, therefore, justified in affirming that

this measure has been very successful, and that it is a most valuable example of the superior productiveness of low duties.*

The duties, as reduced by Mr. Robinson, were 7s. 3d. per Imperial gallon on French wines, 4s. 10d. per do. on all other foreign wines, and 28. 5d. on those of the Cape of Good Hope. They continued on this footing till the equalisation act (1 & 2 Wil. 4. c. 30), which imposes a duty of 5s. 6d. per Imperial gallon on all foreign wines, and of 2s. 94. on those of the Cape.

But the equalisation effected by this act ought not to have been brought about by adding any thing to the duties on port, sherry, &c., but exclusively by reducing those on French wines to their level. The su joined Tables show that the consumption of wine in the United Kingdom was about stationary from 1826 to 1831; and the addition of 8d. a gallon, that was then made to the duties on all sorts of foreign wine except French, from which 1s. 9d. was deducted, appears to have sensibly affected the consumption of 1832. Considering, indeed, the increasing wealth and population of the British empire, and the more generally diffused use of wine, the small increase of the quantities retained for consumption is not a little surprising. A good deal is, we believe, ascribable to adulteration. It is certain, however, that the duties are still too high; but they are principally objectionable from the mode of their assessment. The trade will never be placed on a proper footing till the duty is imposed on an ad valorem principle. The imposition of the same duty on inferior and cheap wines, worth 101. a hogshead, as on the choicest Burgundy and Champagne, worth 501. or 60l. a hogshead, is so utterly subversive of all principle, that one is astonished it should be maintained for an instant. Its absurdity would not be exceeded, were the same duty charged on small beer that is charged on gin! The effect of this apparently equal, but really most unequal duty, is to exclude all low priced wines from the English markets; and to deprive the middle classes of the gratification derivable from their use. Commercially speaking, Bordeaux is much nearer London than Paris: and, but for this preposterous system, the cheap wines of the Gironde, Languedoc, and Provence might be bought here at a less price than in most parts of France. Were it necessary for the sake of revenue to continue the present system, it might be reluctantly submitted to; but it is abundantly certain, that a fairly assessed ad valorem duty would, by increasing the consumption of the middle classes, yield a much larger amount of revenue than is produced by the constant duty and it is not to be endured, that the trade of the country should be deeply injured, and the enjoyments of the great bulk of the community materially impaired, for no purpose of public utility, but merely that injustice and absurdity may be prolonged! It is said, indeed, that the imposition of an ad valorem duty would lead to the commission of fraud; but we have been assured, by those familiar with the customs, that such precautions might easily be adopted as would prevent any danger on this head. And though it were otherwise-though a few thousand gallons of wine were admitted for home consumption at a somewhat lower duty than they ought to have paid-the injury would be of the most trivial kind, and would hardly, indeed, deserve a moment's attention. In the United States, most duties are imposed on an ad valorem principle; and it is not alleged that any real difficulty has to be encountered in their collection.

Consumption of Wine in Ireland. Duties.-In 1790, the duties on wine consumed in Ireland were considerably below the level of those imposed in Great Britain, and the average annual quantity of all sorts retained for home consumption in that country amounted to about 1,160,000 Imperial gallons, producing about 138,000 a year of revenue. Had those to whom the government of Ireland was intrusted possessed the slightest knowledge of the merest elements of finance, or of the condition of the Irish people, they would not have attempted to add to the public revenue by augmenting the duties on wine. Owing to the limited number of the middle classes in Ireland, an increase of duty could not be expected to be productive; and though it has yielded 50,000l., or even 100,0007. a year additional revenue, that would have been no compensation for the injury it was sure to do in checking the diffusion of that taste for the luxuries and enjoyments so essential to the improvement of the people. But those who had to administer the affairs of Ireland were insensible to such considerations; and never doubted that 2 and 2 make 4 in the arithmetic of the customs as well as in Cocker! Such, indeed, was their almost incredible rapacity, that in the interval between 1791 and 1814, they raised the duty on French wine from 331. 7s. a tan to 1441. 7s. 6d. ; and that on port from 221. 4s. 8d. to 951. 11s.! This was a much more rapid increase than had taken place in England; and as the country was far less able to bear even the same increase, the consequences have been proportionally mischiev ous. In 1815, the quantity of wine retained for home consumption in Ireland had declined, notwithstanding the population had been doubled, to 608,000 Imperial gallons, or to about half the quantity consumed in 1790; and in 1824, the consumption had fallen to 467,000 gallons, while the revenue only amounted to 185,000l.!

It is unnecessary to make any commentary on such statements. But it is mortifying to reflect, that the legislature of a civilised country like Great Britain should have obstinately persevered in such a system for about of a century. We venture to affirm, that those who ransack the financial annals of Turkey and Spain, will find nothing in them evincing in every part greater rapacity, ignorance, and contempt for the public interest, than is displayed in the history of Irish taxation from 1790 to 1819.

The reduction of the duties in 1825 has nearly doubled the consumption of wine in Ireland, and has added considerably to the revenue. The duties are still, however, oppressively high as compared with the means of the population; and hence, notwithstanding the population of Ireland has more than doubled, and the wealth of the country been materially increased in the interval, the quantity of wine

*An article in the Edinburgh Review, No. 80., contributed to bring about this measure. an excellent tract on the Wine Trade, by Mr. Warre, published in 1824.

See also