were this road completed, wheat and flour brought from the table land of Mexico might be shipped at Vera Cruz, and sold in the West Indies cheaper than the wheat and flour of the United States. But we agree with Mr. Poinsett in regarding any such expectation as quite chimerical. Though the advantage on the side of Mexico in respect of superior fertility of soil and cheapness of labour were decidedly greater than it really is, it would not balance the enormous expense of 300 miles of land carriage upon such bulky and heavy articles, more especially as the wagons would, in most cases, have to return empty. It is plain, however that the advantage of getting the produce of the mines, and the peculiar productions of the country, as cochineal, indigo, sugar, vanilla, tobacco, &c., conveyed with comparative facility to market, and of receiving back European goods at a proportionally less expense, will more than indemnify all the outlay that may be required to perfect the road, and will be of the very greatest importance to the republic; but it is quite out of the question to imagine that Vera Cruz is ever destined to become a rival of New Orleans in the exportation of corn and flour. For a considerable period after the town of Vera Cruz had thrown off the Spanish yoke, the castle of St. Juan d'Ulloa continued in possession of the Spaniards. During this interval, the commerce of Vera Cruz was almost entirely transferred to the port of Alvarado, 12 leagues to the south-east. Alvarado is built upon the left bank of a river of the same name. The bar at the mouth of the river, about 1 mile below the town, renders it inaccessible for vessels drawing above 10 or 12 feet water. Large ships are obliged to anchor in the roads, where they are exposed to all the violence of the north winds, loading and unloading by means of lighters. Alvarado is supposed, but probably without much foundation, to be a little healthier than Vera Cruz. The trade has now mostly reverted to its old channel. But within these few years, Tampico has risen to considerable importance as a commercial sea-port. It is situated about 60 leagues N.N.W. of Vera Cruz, in lat. 22° 15′ 30′′ N., lon. 97° 52′ W., being about 104 leagues from Mexico. Hitherto it is said to have been free from fever. The shifting of the bar at the mouth of the river, and the shallowness of the water on it, which is sometimes under 8, and rarely above 15 feet, are serious obstacles to the growth of the port. Vessels coming in sight are boarded by pilots, who conduct them, provided they do not draw too much water, over the bar. Those that cannot enter the port load and unload by means of lighters; mooring so that they may get readily to sea in the event of a gale coming on from the north. Exports and Imports.—The precious metals have always formed the principal article of exports from Mexico. During the 10 years ending with 1801, the average annual produce of the Mexican mines amounted, according to M. Humboldt, to 23,000,000 dollars-(Nouvelle Espagne, tome iv. p. 137.); and in 1805, the produce was 27,165,888 dollars.-(Id. tome iv. p. 83.) But during the revolutionary war, the old Spanish capitalists, to whom most of the mines belonged, being proscribed, emigrated with all the property they could scrape together: and this withdrawal of capital from the mines, added to the injury several of them sustained by the destruction of their works during the contest, the interruption of all regular pursuits which it occasioned, and the insecurity and anarchy that afterwards prevailed, caused an extraordinary falling off in the produce of the mines. Within these few years, however, a considerable improvement has taken place. The efforts, and the lavish expenditure, of a few of the companies formed in this country for working the mines, have been so far successful, that some of them have been got again into good order, and that a large increase of produce may be fairly anticipated, provided they are permitted to prosecute their operations without molestation. But, as we have elsewhere stated (see antè, p. 190.), some of the parties who sold or leased the mines, began to put forward claims never heard of before, the moment they perceived that there was a reasonable prospect of the companies succeeding; and in some instances they have not scrupled to enforce their claims by violence! It is to be hoped that the Mexican government will exert itself to repress these outrages. If it have power to put down, and yet wink at or tolerate such disgraceful proceedings, it will make itself responsible for the consequences; and will merit chastisement as well as contempt. The total quantity of gold and silver coined in the different Mexican mints during the 4 years ending with 1829, wasIn 1826 1827 8,608,278 dollars. 10,619,217 In 1828 9,982,905 dollars. 11,787,133 (Parl. Paper, No. 338. Sess. 1833.) Besides the precious metals, cochineal, sugar, flour, indigo, provisions, leather, sarsaparilla, vanilla, jalap, soap, logwood, and pimento, are the principal articles exported from Vera Cruz. The imports consist principally of linen, cotton, woollen, and silk goods, paper, brandy, cacao, quicksilver, iron, steel, wine, wax, &c. According to the statement published by the Mexican government, the value of the imports and exports at Vera Cruz and Alvarado, in 1824, was as follows: Imports from other Mexican ports from American ports Dollars. 284,087 4,360,568 from European and other foreign ports This account is exclusive of the imports by government on account of the loan negotiated in London. According to Humboldt, the imports at Vera Cruz, before the revolutionary struggles, might be estimated, at an average, at about 15,000,000 dollars, and the exports at about 22,000,000 ditto. It must, however, be observed that this statement refers only to the registered articles, or to those that paid the duties on importation and exportation. But exclusive of these, the value of the articles clandestinely imported by the ports on the Gulf, previously to the revolution, was estimated at 4,500,000 dollars a year; and 2,500,000 dollars were supposed to be annually smuggled out of the country in plate and bars, and ingots of gold and silver. A regular contraband trade used to be carried on between Vera Cruz and Jamaica: and notwithstanding all the efforts of government for their exclusion, and the excessive severity of its laws against smuggling, the shops of Mexico were always pretty well supplied with the products of England and Germany.-(Humboldt, Nouvelle Espagne, tome iv. p. 125.; Poinsett's Notes on Mexico, p. 133.) M. Humboldt states, that the total population of Mexico, exclusive of Guatemala, may be estimated at about 7,000,000. Of this number about are Indians, the rest being Europeans, or descendants of Europeans, and mixed races. But notwithstanding this large amount of population, the trade we carry on with Mexico is very inferior to that which we carry on with Brazil. The following is an account of the real or declared value of all sorts of British produce and manufactures exported to the States of Central and Southern America in 1831: The imports of British goods at second hand into Mexico and Colombia, from Jamaica, and the other West India islands, are no longer of any considerable importance; but considerable quantities are imported from New Orleans. Mexico being, with the exception of the United States, the richest and most populous of all the American countries, the smallness of its trade with England may justly excite surprise. It originates principally, we believe, in the want of good ports and large cities on the coast, and the distance and difficulty of the roads from Vera Cruz and other ports to the healthy and elevated part of the country. These circumstances, coupled with the obstacles which the restrictive policy of the Spaniards threw in the way of the importation of foreign products, led to the establishment of manufactures in the interior. Previously to the commencement of the revolutionary struggles, some of these manufactures were in a very advanced state; and were sufficient to supply the population with most of the clothes and other articles required for their consumption. They have since declined considerably; but as it is pretty certain that the wealth of the inhabitants has declined still more, this circumstance has had little effect in increasing importation. Revenues. The revenues of Mexico have been, during the years (ended 30th of January), Of these sums, about have been produced by the customs duties. The latter amounted, in 1832, to 8,802,920 dollars. During the same year, the duties on imported cottons were 1,150,000 dollars, and those on the exportation of the precious metals 309,472 dollars. The total receipts of the Custom-house of Vera Cruz, in 1832, were 2,962,299 dollars, and those of Tampico 1,428,992 dollars. Port Charges.-Foreign ships pay in the port of Vera Cruz Tonnage duty, &c. (per ton) Pilotage on entering on leaving Dols. reals. 1 - 15 4 A 5th part, or 20 per cent., is deducted from the duties on all commodities brought from a foreign port in Mexican ships. The Mexican Congress is, at this moment, engaged in discussions respecting a modification of the tariff. Monies, Weights, and Measures, same as in Spain; for which, see CADIZ. Duties, &c. ut Vera Cruz.-The Mexican government issued, on the 16th of November, 1827, a new tariff, to which the following regulations were prefixed : Regulations as to the Mexican Tariff. Vessels of all nations in amity with the United States of Mexico will be admitted to entry at the privileged ports of the republic, upon payment of the duties, and subject to the regulations to be observed at the maritime Custom-house, according to this tariff. The anchorage duty is abolished, and all vessels arriving from foreign ports are to pay 2 dol 1 real per ton tonnage duty. Foreign vessels will not be allowed to trade coastwise with the ports of the republic. All vessels putting into any of the ports of this republic, by stress of weather or for refitment, will be allowed the requisite time to complete their repairs or provisions, and will only have to pay such charges as are customary. All vessels on their arrival are to present their manifests by triplicate, specifying the marks and numbers of the packages, with the particulars of their respective contents. The duties will be levied on all goods according to their specification in the manifest, whether they are landed or not; and any article that shall be found not specified in the manifest, or any alteration in the quantity or quality, will subject such goods to seizure. The weights and measures designated in the tariff are those used in Mexico; and any article exceeding the maximum annexed to the same shall, for every of such excess in measurement, pay increase of the duty affixed to the said article. All articles not specified or enumerated in the tariff shall pay a duty of 40 per cent. on the valuation that may be fixed on the same at the port of entry; and for every such valuation, 3 brokers shall be appointed, 1 of whom is to be chosen by the importer, and the other 2 on the part of the Customhouse. The averia, and all other duties lately payable in this republic under various denominations (excepting the State duty), are abolished. The importer shall be liable for the whole amount of the duties; of which is to be paid within 90 days from the day the goods are landed, and the other within 90 days after the expiration of the latter period. No article will be allowed to be taken out of the Custom-house until the duties shall have been paid, or security given for the due payment of the same, to the satisfaction of the proper authorities. All articles imported prior to this law taking effect are liable to the international duties as before. After the duties have been once paid, no deduction or allowance whatever can be made on the same, excepting in cases where an error may have occurred. No article will be allowed to be re-exported without previous payment of the import duties. All goods that may arrive damaged shall be examined in presence of the proper authorities, and an allowance made according to the damage such goods shall have sustained. All goods arriving direct from the place of their growth or manufacture, in vessels under the Mexican flag, are to pay 1-5th less duty than in foreign vessels. The tariff may be altered at any time, whenever the Congress shall deem it expedient so to do; but no alteration which may be prejudicial to commerce in general shall be put in force until 6 months after such alteration shall have been decided upon. The basis contained in the preceding articles are not intended to interfere with any separate treaty of commerce which has or may be entered into by this nation. These regulations are to be put in force within 60 days from the date hereof. Notices to Masters of Vessels and Passengers proceeding to any Mexican Port. Notice is hereby given to all masters of vessels proceding from London to any port or ports of the United States of Mexico, that the passengers they take out should be provided with passports, signed by his Excellency the minister of the republic, otherwise the vessels will be liable to detention on their arrival at those ports, and the passengers on board unprovided with such passports will not be permitted to land in the ports of Mexico. No plea for the want of them will be admitted. Masters of vessels proceeding to and from those States are required to have on board all necessary papers and vouchers, which, according to the orders conveyed through his Excellency the Mexican minister plenipotentiary at the court of his Britannic Majesty, to this consulate, ought to consist of, besides the regular ship's papers, all the invoices of shippers, with the corresponding bills of lading. Merchandise found on board, which should not appear inserted in the invoices certified by the consul, or that otherwise is falsely described, either in quality or quantity, shall be considered and dealt with as contraband. A bill of health, certified by the consul, will also be required from vessels on arrival, by the authorities at the Mexican ports. The above regulations are to be in force from the date of this notice, Nov. 28. 1830. Notice is hereby given, that the Congress of the United States of Mexico decreed, the 12th of October of the last year, that the Mexican envoys and consular agents must henceforward charge for each passport to Mexico 2 dollars, and for each certification and signature 4 dollars. 20, Austin-friars, 9th of Jan. 1831. The Vice-Consul, J. SCHEIDNAGEL. VERDIGRIS (Ger. Grünspan; Fr. Vert-de-gris, Verdet; It. Verderame; Sp. Cardenillo, Verdete, Verde-gris; Rus. Jar), a kind of rust of copper, of a beautiful bluish green colour, formed from the corrosion of copper by fermented vegetables. Its specific gravity is 1.78. Its taste is disagreeably metallic; and, like all the compounds into which copper enters, it is poisonous. It was known to the ancients, and various ways of preparing it are described by Pliny. It is very extensively used by painters, and in dyeing; it is also used to some extent in medicine. The best verdigris made at Montpellier; the wines of Languedoc being particularly well suited for corroding copper, and forming this substance. It is generally exported in cakes of about 25 lbs. weight each. It is also manufac tured in this country, by means of the refuse of cider, &c.; the high duty of 2s. per lb, on the foreign article giving the home producers a pretty complete monopoly of the market. The goodness of verdigris is judged of from the deepness and brightness of its colour, its dryness, and its forming, when rubbed on the hand with a little water or saliva, smooth paste, free from grittiness.--(Thomson's Chemistry; Rees's Cyclopædia.) VERJUICE (Ger. Agrest; Fr. Verjus; It. Agresto; Sp. Agraz), a kind of harsh, austere vinegar, made of the expressed juice of the wild apple, or crab. The French give this name to unripe grapes, and to the sour liquor obtained from them. VERMICELLI (Ger. Nudeln; Du. Meelneepen, Proppen; Fr. Vermicelli; It. Vermicelli, Tagliolini; Sp. Aletrias), a species of wheaten paste formed into long, slender, hollow tubes, or threads, used amongst us in soups, broths, &c. Vermicelli is the same substance as maccaroni; the only difference between them being that the latter is made into larger tubes. Both of them are prepared in the greatest perfection in Naples, where they form the favourite dish of all classes, and the principal food of the bulk of the population. The flour of the hard wheat (grano duro) imported from the Black Sea is the best suited for the manufacture of maccaroni. Being mixed with water, it is kneaded by means of heavy wooden blocks wrought by levers, till it acquires a sufficient degree of tenacity; it is then forced, by simple pressure, through a number of holes, so contrived that it is formed into hollow cylinders. The name given to the tubes depends on their diameter; those of the largest size being maccaroni, the next to them vermicelli, and the smallest fedelini. At Genoa, and some other places, the paste is coloured by an admixture of saffron ; but at Naples, where its preparation is best understood, nothing is used except flour and water; the best being made of the flour of hard wheat, and the inferior sorts of the flour of soft wheat. When properly prepared and boiled to a nicety, Neapolitan maccaroni assumes a greenish tinge. It is then taken out of the caldron, drained of the water, and being saturated with concentrated meat gravy, and sprinkled with finely grated cheese, it forms a dish of which all classes from the prince to the beggar are passionately fond. But the maccaroni used by the poor is merely boiled in plain water, and is rarely eaten with any condiment whatever. The maccaroni usually served up in England, is said, by those familiar with that of Naples, to be a positive disgrace to the name it bears. When properly prepared, maccaroni is nutritious and easy of digestion. The lazzaroni pique themselves on the dexterity with which they swallow long strings of maccaroni and vermicelli without breaking them! (We have derived these details from an excellent article on maccaroni in the Penny Magazine for the 10th of August, 1833.) VERMILLION. See CINNABAR. VINEGAR (Ger. Essig; Du. Azyn, Fr. Vinaigre; It. Aceto; Sp. and Port. Vinagre; Rus. Ukzus; Lat. Acetum).—(See ACID (ACETIC), for a description of vinegar.) A duty being imposed on vinegar of 2d. the gallon, its manufacture is placed under the control of the excise. A licence, costing 5l., and renewable annually, has to be taken out by every maker of vinegar, or acetous acid. All places for manufacturing or keeping vinegar must be entered, under a penalty of 501. No vinegar maker is to receive any vinegar, or acetous acid, or sugar wash, or any preparation for vinegar, without giving 12 hours' notice to the excise, under penalty of 1001. Any person sending out or receiving vinegar shall, unless the duty on it be paid, and it be accompanied by a permit, forfeit 2001. All vinegar makers are to make entries at the next Excise-office of the quantity made within each month, and are bound to clear off the duties within a month of such entry, on pain of double duties.-(See 58 Geo. 3, c. 65., and Burn's Justice of the Peace, Marriott's ed.) Account of the Quantity of Vinegar, charged with Duty in the United Kingdom, in each Year from 1820, with the Nett Revenue accruing thereon. Rate of duty previously to 1826, 4d. per gallon; since then, 2d. The manufacture is almost wholly confined to England; the quantity produced in Scotland and Ireland not amounting to 100,000 gallons. VITRIOL. See COPPERAS. VITRIOL, OIL OF. See ACID (SULPHURIC). ULTRAMARINE (Ger. Ultramarin; Fr. Bleu d'outremer; It. Oltramarino; Sp. Ultramar; Rus. Ultra-marin), a very fine blue powder made from the blue parts of lapis lazuli. It has the valuable property of neither fading, nor becoming tarnished, on exposure to the air, or a moderate heat; and on this account is highly prized by painters. Owing to its great price, it is very apt to be adulterated. It was introduced about the end of the fifteenth century. USANCE, a period of one, two, or three months, or of so many days, after the date of a bill of exchange, according to the custom of different places, before the bill becomes due. Double or treble usance, is double or treble the usual time; and usance is the time. When a month is divided, the usance, notwithstanding the differences in the lengths of the months, is uniformly 15 days. Usances are calculated exclusively of the date of the bill. Bills of exchange drawn at usance are allowed the usual days of grace, and on the last of the 3 days the bill should be presented for payment.—(See EXCHANGE.) USURY. See INTEREST AND ANNUITIES. W. WALNUTS, the fruit of the Juglans, or walnut-tree, of which there are several varieties. The walnut is a large, handsome tree, with strong spreading branches. The fruit is a pretty large, smooth, ovate nut, containing an oily kernel, divided into four lobes. The nut has been always held in high estimation; it was called by the Romans Jovis glans, the acorn or mast of Jove, and hence the name of the tree. The walnut tree is indigenous to Persia and the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. It has long been introduced into Great Britain; but the fruit seldom ripens in the more northerly parts of the island. Previously to the very general introduction of mahogany, the wood of the walnut tree was extensively used amongst us in making of furniture; and it continues to be largely employed for that purpose in many parts of the Continent. It is much used by turners; and is superior to every other sort of wood for the mounting of guns; a circumstance which caused great devastation among our walnut plantations during the latter years of the war. Great numbers of walnut trees are annually consumed in the Haute Vienne and other departments of France, in the manufacture of the wooden shoes or clogs used by the peasantry. The nuts are either gathered when ripe, being served up as desserts without any preparation; or they are plucked green, and pickled.--(Poiret, Historie Philosophique des Plantes, tome vii. p. 213.; Rees's Cyclopædia, &c.) Account of Walnuts imported, exported, and retained for Home Use, during 1831 and 1832, with the Nett Duty thereon, and the Rate of Duty. WANGHEES, sometimes called JAPAN CANES, a species of cane imported from China. They should be chosen pliable, tough, round, and taper; the knots at regular distances from each other; and the heavier the better. Such as are dark-coloured, badly glazed, and light, should be rejected.—(Millburn's Orient. Com.) WAREHOUSING SYSTEM. By this system is meant the provisions made for lodging imported articles in public warehouses, at a reasonable rent, without payment of the duties on importation till they be withdrawn for home consumption. If re-exported, no duty is ever paid. 1. Expediency and Origin of the Warehousing System.-It is laid down by Dr. Smith, in one of his justly celebrated maxims on the subject of taxation, that "Every tax ought to be levied at the time and in the manner that is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it."-(Wealth of Nations, vol. iii. p. 368.) No one can doubt the soundness of this maxim; and yet it was very strangely neglected, down to 1803, in the management of the customs. Previously to this period, the duties on most goods imported had either to be paid at the moment of their importation, or a bond, with sufficient security for their future payment, had to be given to the revenue officers. The hardship and inconvenience of such a system is obvious. It was often very difficult to find sureties; and the merchant, in order to raise funds to pay the duties, was frequently reduced to the ruinous necessity of selling his goods immediately on their arrival, when, perhaps, the market was already glutted. Neither was this the only inconvenience that grew out of this system; for the duties having to be paid all at once, and not by degrees as the goods were sold for consumption, their price was raised by the amount of the profit on the capital advanced in payment of the duties; competition, too, was diminished in consequence of the greater command of funds required to carry on trade under such disadvantages; and a few rich individuals were enabled to monopolise the importation of those commodities on which heavy duties were payable. The system had, besides, an obvious tendency to discourage the carrying trade. It prevented this country from becoming an entrepôt for foreign products, by hindering the importation of such as were not immediately wanted for home consumption; and thus tended to lessen the resort of foreigners to our markets, inasmuch as it rendered it difficult, or rather impossible, for them to complete an assorted cargo. And in addition to all these circumstances, the difficulty of granting a really equivalent drawback to the exporters of such commodities as had paid duty, opened a door for the commission of every species of fraud. But these disadvantages and drawbacks, obvious as they may now appear, did not attract the public attention till a comparatively late period. Sir Robert Walpole seems to have been |