for the encouragement and protection of our home manufacture; but it may equally be concluded, that as pins (which are indispensable in the process of lace making) were not used in England till 1543, the manufacture of lace must have been vulgar in fabric, and circumscribed in its extent. Tradition says that the lace manufacture was introduced into this country by some refugees from Flanders, who settled at or near Cranfield, now a scattered village on the west side of Bedfordshire, and adjoining Bucks; but there is no certain evidence that we are indebted to the Flemings for the original introduction of this beautiful art, although from them we have undoubtedly derived almost all the different manufactures relating to dress. We have, however, imitated many of their lace fabrics, and greatly improved our manufactures at various periods, from the superior taste displayed in the production of this article in the Low Countries. In 1626, Sir Henry Borlase founded and endowed the free school at Great Marlow, for 24 boys, to read, write, and cast accounts; and for 24 girls to knit, spin, and make bone lace--(Lewis's Topography); so that there is reason to suppose that at this time the manufacture had commenced in Buckinghamshire, which, by degrees extended to the adjoining counties of Bedford and Northampton. In 1640, the lace trade was a flourishing interest in Buckinghamshire-(Fuller's Worthies, and different Itineraries); and so greatly had it advanced in England, that by a royal ordinance in France, passed in 1960, a mark was established upon the thread lace imported from this country and from Flanders, and upon the point lace from Genoa, Venice, and other foreign countries, in order to secure payment of the customs duties.-(Universal Dictionary.)

Pillow Lace,-the original manufacture,-is worked upon a hard stuffed pillow, with silk, flax, or cotton threads, according to a parchment pattern placed upon it, by means of pins, bobbins and spindles, which are placed and displaced, twisting, and interweaving the threads, so as to imitate the pattern designed. This manufacture has been long pursued in almost every town and village in the midland counties, particularly in Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and Northamptonshire, besides at Honiton, in Devon, and various other places in the west of England. The principal places where it is made in the Netherlands are Antwerp, Brussels, Mechlin, Louvaine, Ghent, Valenciennes, and Lisle. It is also made at Chantilly near Paris (celebrated for veils), Charleville, Sedan, Le Compté de Bourgoyne, Liege, Dieppe, Havre de Grace, Harfleur, Pont l'Evesque, Gosors, Fescamp, Caen, Arras, Bapaume, &c., in France; and at various places in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. We can form no estimate of the number of persons employed on the Continent; but in Brussels alone not less than 10,000 are said to be engaged in this manufacture.-(Ency. Metrop.) In England and Ireland, besides the laws passed at different times to encourage and protect the manufacture, associations were formed in various places, with the view of exciting a spirit of emulation and improvement, by holding out premiums for the production of the best pieces of bone lace; and although smuggling of foreign lace was carried on to a great extent, (in 1772, 72,000 ells of French lace were seized in the port of Leigh, and lodged in the king's warehouse there, besides numerous other seizures,) the British manufacture advanced in an unparalleled degree.-(Gentleman's Mag. 1751, vol. xxi. p. 520.; vol. xlii. p. 434.) It is imagined that the first lace ever made in this country was of the sort called Brussels point, the net work made by bone bobbins on the pillow, and the pattern and sprigs worked with the needle. Such appears to have been the kind worn by the nobility and people of high rank, as is evident by the different portraits now in existence, painted by Vandyke, in the time of Charles I., and afterwards by Sir Peter Lely and Sir Godfrey Kneller, in the succeeding reigns of Charles II., Queen Anne, and George I. About a century since, the grounds in use were the old Mechlin, and what the trade termed the wire ground, which was very similar, if not identical, with the modern Mechlin, the principal article in the present French manufacture. The laces made in these grounds were singularly rich and durable; the designs of the old Mechlin resembled the figures commonly introduced in ornamental carving. Between 70 and 80 years ago, a great deterioration was occasioned by the introduction of the Trolly ground, which was exceedingly coarse and vulgar, the figure angular, and altogether in the worst taste conceivable. An improvement, however, took place about the year 1770, when the ground which is probably the most ancient known, was reintroduced; this was no other than the one still in partial use, and denominated the old French ground. About 1777 or 1778, quite a new ground was attempted by the inhabitants of Buckingham and its neighbourhood, which quickly superseded all the others; this was the point ground, which had (as is supposed) been imported from the Netherlands. From the first appearance of this ground may be dated the origin of the modern pillow lace trade; but it was not until the beginning of the present century that the most striking improvements were made; for during the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the article, though certainly much more light and elegant from the construction of the ground, was miserably poor and spiritless in the design. Soon after the year 1800, a freer and bolder style was adopted; and from that time to 1812, the improvement and consequent success were astonishing and unprecedented. At Honiton, in Devon, the manufacture had arrived at that perfection, was so tasteful in the design, and so delicate and

beautiful in the workmanship, as not to be excelled even by the best specimens of Brussels lace. During the late war, veils of this lace were sold in London at from 20 to 100 guineas; they are now sold from 8 to 15 guineas. The effects of the competition of machinery, however, were about this time felt; and in 1815, the broad laces began to be superseded by the new manufacture. The pillow lace trade has since been gradually dwindling into insignificance, and has at length sunk into a state which, compared with its condition 20 years back, is truly deplorable. It is difficult to form an estimate of the number of persons employed in pillow lace making during its prosperity; but in a petition from the makers in Buckingham and the neighbourhood, presented to her present Majesty in 1830, it was stated that 120,000 persons were dependent on this trade; but this number had since been materially diminished.

Nottingham Lace.-A frame-work knitter of Nottingham, named Hammond, about the year 1768, was the first who made lace by machinery. Dissipated in habits, and destitute of money, employment, or credit, the idea struck him, while looking at the broad lace on his wife's cap, that he could fabricate a similar article by means of his stocking frame.—(Gravenor Henson on Hosiery, Lace, &c., p. 295.) He tried, and succeeded. The first machine ostensibly for lace (introduced at Nottingham about the same period, by A. Else and Harvey of London) was called a pin machine, for making single press point net in imitation of the Brussels ground. This machine, although lost here, is still used in France to a great extent in manufacturing the net called tulle. This was the age of experiments; and workmen at their leisure hours employed themselves in forming new meshes on the hand, in hope of perfecting a complete hexagon, which had hitherto eluded all their efforts to discover. In 1782, the warp frame was introduced, which is still in use for making warp lace; and in 1799, it was first attempted to make bobbin net by machinery; but this was not found to answer. During the succeeding 10 years many alterations were made in the construction of the machines, with no better success, until at length, in 1809, Mr. Heathcoat of Tiverton succeeded in discovering the correct principle of the bobbin net frame, and obtained a patent for 14 years for his invention.* Steam power was first introduced by Mr. John Lindley, in 1815-16; but did not come into active operation till 1820. It became general in 1822-23; and a great stimulus was at this period given to the trade, owing to the expiration of Mr. Heathcoat's patent, the increased application of power, and the perfection to which the dif ferent hand frames had by this time been brought. A temporary prosperity shone on the trade; and numerous individuals-clergymen, lawyers, doctors, and others-readily embarked capital in so tempting a speculation. Prices fell in proportion as production increased; but the demand was immense; and the Nottingham lace frame became the organ of general supply,―rivalling and supplanting, in plain nets, the most finished productions of France and the Netherlands.

Mr. William Felkin, of Nottingham, the author of a very able statement relative to this manufacture, considers that the amount of capital and the number of hands employed in the bobbin net trade may be thus estimated.—(Published August, 1833.)

In 1831 (vide former edition of this work), the annual produce was estimated at 23,400,000 square yards, worth 1,891,8757. It is now estimated at 30,771,000 square yards, *Since this article was printed in our first edition, Mr. Heathcoat was pointed out to us as the original inventor of the bobbin net machine, and that, prior to his patent being obtained, bobbin net by machinery was unknown, although numerous attempts had been made to produce it by its means. Mr. Brunel, engineer, who was examined, as a witness, in the action Boville v. Moore, tried before Sir Vicary Gibbs, in March, 1816, stated in reference to this machine, that when Mr. Heathcoat had separated one half of the threads, and placed them on a beam as warp threads, and made the bobbin which carried the other half of the threads act between those warp threads, so as to produce Buckinghamshire or pillow lace, the lace machine was invented. Relying upon the authenticity of this statement, we feel it due to Mr. Heathcoat to give this explanation.

worth 1,850,650%. It would therefore appear that 7,000,000 square yards more per annum are now produced for about the same amount of wages and profits. This increase in quantity is understood to have arisen from the new and improved machinery which in the mean time has been introduced. At this moment, there are, perhaps, 20 new applications of known principles, all tending to promote variety and increased production; but it is doubtful if any new principle has been brought into operation. A considerable increase has also taken place in bobbin net machinery on the Continent, particularly at Calais, where, in 1823, there were not 35 machines, and, perhaps, not 100 on the Continent altogether. Mr Felkin states the number of frames now employed there, as under :--

The produce of these machines is estimated at 9,824,000 square yards of net, of the value in English money of 570,2501. In France alone, it was stated in an address presented to the Chamber of Deputies in March, 1833, that bobbin net to the value of 1,000,0007. sterling was annually used in that country, formed of equal moieties of French and English manufacture. But in other parts of Europe, where the manufacture was previously unknown, it is now also beginning to be established. Besides Austria, Russia, and Prussia, it is stated that orders have been sent to this country for bobbin net frames from Barcelona and Astorga in Spain, and even from some places in Persia. The attention of government has been called to the circumstance, and measures taken to prevent the illegal exportation of machinery. At a public meeting, held in Nottingham in August last, a committee was formed for the same purpose.

The population of Nottingham and the surrounding villages in 1811, when the bobbin net manufacture commenced, was 47,000; the present number is 79,000. As the hosiery

and the point net trade are understood to have declined in the mean time, and no other branch materially advanced or sprung up, this large increase may fairly be attributed to the bobbin net manufacture.

By comparing the value of 1,270,000 lbs. of Sea Island cotton, worth 148,000l., and about 10,000l. worth of thrown silk, which appears to be annually used in this manufacture, with the manufactured value of the same, worked into 30,771,000 square yards of bobbin net, the estimated value of which is 1,850,650/., the great national utility of this trade be comes at once evident. A clear surplus of more than a pound sterling is realised upon every pound avoirdupois of the raw material, which is distributed over the trade in rent, profit, and wages, and this is altogether independent of the profits arising from embroidering, in itself a most extensive and important branch. About half, or perhaps three-fourths, of this production is supposed to be exported in a plain state, chiefly to Hamburgh, the Leipsic and Frankfort fairs, Antwerp and the rest of Belgium, to France (contraband), Italy, Sicily, and North and South America. Of the remainder, three-fourths are sold unembroidered, and the remaining fourth embroidered, in this country.

The English manufacture from machinery is now confined to point net, warp net, and bobbin net, so called from the peculiar construction of the machines by which they are produced. There were various other descriptions made; viz. two-plain net, square or tuck knotted net, the fish mesh net, and the platted or Urling's net; but they are now discontinued.— (Gravenor Henson.) Nottingham is the depôt of the lace trade; and the supplies, collected from all the surrounding villages, and even from the more distant counties where it is manufactured, are thence distributed to the four quarters of the world.

Present condition of the Lace Trade, Wages, &c.-We are grieved to say that the manufacture, not only of pillow but also of Nottingham lace, is at this moment in a state of great depression. The growth of the latter has been the means of destroying the former; but as the new manufacture is by far the most valuable, the change, though severely felt by many thousands of poor persons in Bucks, Bedford, and other counties, is, in a national point of view, decidedly advantageous. The depression in the Nottingham lace trade seems to be the result of its previous prosperity; which, besides contributing to the extraordinary increase in the powers of production, attracted too much capital and too many hands to the trade. So long as the demand kept pace with the supply, workmen were kept in full employment, wages and profits were good, and the stocks on hand small. But of late years the supply has been a question of quantity rather than of quality, and prices have conse quently suffered a great depression. Lace, having become a common ornament, easily accessible to all classes, has lost its attractions in the fashionable circles, by which it was

formerly patronised, so that very rich lace is no longer in demand. And many articles of dress, which in our drawing-rooms and ball-rooms, lately consisted of the most costly and tasteful patterns in lace, are now either superseded, or made of a different manufacture.

The wages of the power loom workmen have fallen, within the last 4 years, from 17. 4s. to 188. per week—(Felkin, p. 2.); and, in 1830 and 1831, machines had increased one eighth in number, and one sixth in capacity of production. But wider or speedier machines than heretofore have since come into more general use, worked by 3 men in 6 hour shifts, or 18 hours per day, and calculated to produce about a fourth more net for the same wages; the effect of which is to supersede the single-handed machines, (now much depreciated in value), and reduce many of the small owners to journeymen. The tendency of the increase in power machinery is still further to depreciate the wages of the hand machine workmen (already below the standard of the power loom weaver); and the increased and accumulating production, beyond a proportionate demand, renders it hopeless to expect any immediate amelioration in their condition. A favourable reaction is now taking place in the embroidering branch; but many of the embroiderers in Nottingham were recently unemployed, and had to leave the trade; and even for the most splendid and beautiful specimens of embroidery (some of which have occupied 6 weeks, working 6 days a week and 14 hours a day), the young women did not earn more than 1s. a day. The depressed condition of the embroiderers is believed to be owing in no inconsiderable degree to the competition of the Belgians, who have acquired a superiority in this department which it is not easy to account for. The condition of the pillow lace workers is still more deplorable. Many have now abandoned that pursuit for straw plaiting, which offers a more certain, though not a much more profitable employment; but those who still linger on in the fabrication of thread lace, working from 12 to 14 hours a day, cannot obtain more, on the average, than two shillings and sixpence a week for their anxious and unremitting labour. Ten years ago they could, with greater ease, earn 10s. a week, working only 8 hours a day. The health of the power machine workman is, on the whole, understood to be good; the factories are neither hot nor confined; and the hands have only to superintend, not work the machines. Hand machine labour is much heavier; but as it is the custom to work by shifts," the men are seldom more than 6 hours a day at the frame. It is, however, believed, that the gradual depression of wages, requiring increased exertion, will tend to deteriorate the general health of this class, particularly of those employed in wide machines. The embroidery frame is, perhaps, the most destructive. The workers in general, commence at a tender age; and from constantly leaning over the frame, while their bodies remain in a state of inactivity, they are frequently distorted in their persons, and become the victims of pulmonary disease. Notwithstanding the sedentary habits of the pillow lace workers, their general health is understood to be better than that of the lace embroiderers; but, in both these employments, the hours of labour are too long for children. They are, however, purely domestic employments, under the superintendence of parents; but as the existence of the latter depends on the quantity of labour they can bring into operation, their necessities place filial considerations beyond the reach of legislative, or even social, interfer

66

ence.

The most celebrated foreign laces are

1. Brussels, the most valuable. There are 2 kinds; Brussels ground, having a hexagon mesh, formed by piatting and twisting 4 threads of flax to a perpendicular line of mesh; Brussels wire ground, made of silk-meshes partly straight, and partly arched. The pattern is worked separately, and set on by the needle.

2. Mechlin; a hexagon mesh formed of 3 flax threads twisted and platted to a perpendicular line or pillar. The pattern is worked in the net.

3. Valenciennes ; an irregular hexagonal form of 2 threads, partly twisted and platted at the top of the mesh. The pattern is worked in the net similar to Mechlin lace.

4. Lisle; a diamond mesh, formed of 2 threads platted to a pillar.

5. Alencon (called blond); hexagon of 2 threads, twisted similar to Buckingham lace; considered the most inferior of any made on the cushion.

6. Alencon Point; formed of 2 threads to a pillar, with octagon and square meshes alternately.

The French nets made by machinery, are

1. Single Presspoint, called, when not ornamented, tulle, and when ornamented, dentelle; made of silk; is an inferior net, but is attractive from the beautiful manner in which it is stiffened.

2. Trico Berlin; so called from its being invented at Berlin, and the stitch being removed 3 needles from its place of looping is fanciful and ornamented in appearance, but not in demand in England.

3. Fleur de Tulle, made from the warp net machine; mesh of 2 descriptions, which gives a shaded appearance to the net. 4. Tulle Anglois is double pressed point lace. Bobbin net, principally made by English emigrants, who have Warp net, settled in France.

***We are indebted for this learned and very excellent article to Mr. Robert Slater, of Fore Street, London.

LACK, a word used in the East Indies to denote the sum of 100,000 rupees, which, supposing them standards, or siccas, at 2s. 6d., amounts to 12,500/. sterling.

LADING, BILL OF. See BILL OF LADING.

LAGAN. See FLOTSAM.

LA GUAYRA, the principal sea-port of the republic of Venezuela, in the province of Caraccas, on the Caribbean Sea, in lat. 10° 36′ 19′′ N., lon. 67° 6′ 45′′ W. Population 6,000. In 1810, the population is believed to have amounted to 13,000; the reduction being a consequence of the loss of life caused by the tremendous earthquake of 1812, and the massacres and proscriptions incident to the revolutionary war. The population of the city of Caraccas, of which La Guayara may be considered as the port, fell off, from the same cause, from 43,000 in 1810; to 23,000 in 1830; but they are now both increasing.

Port. There is neither quay nor mole at La Guayra. Ships moor E.N.E. and W.S.W., with their head to the north, at from to of a mile from the land, in from 9 to 18 fathoms. The holding ground

is good; and notwithstanding the openness of the road, vessels properly found in anchors and cables run very little risk of being driven from their moorings.

Trade. The principal articles of export are coffee, cacao, indigo, hides, sarsaparilla, &c. The quantities and values of these articles exported in 1829, 1830, and 1831, are exhibited in the following Table :

The principal articles of import are cotton, linen, and woollen goods, principally from England; with provisions, hats, machinery and utensils, hardware, wine, &c. The entire value of the imports, in 1831, was supposed to amount to 162,5031.; of which 62,4231. was furnished by England; 26,0821. by Germany; 32,7591. by the United States; 29,3447. at second hand by St. Thomas; and the residue by France, Spain, &c.

The duties are moderate. Cottons and linens pay 27 per cent. ad valorem. Smuggling has been very prevalent; but efforts have recently been made, by establishing a sort of coast-guard, to effect its suppression.

Denmark

Port Charges payable by a Ship of 300 Tons, discharging and loading at the Port of La Guayra.

N. B.-A ship introducing a cargo, and sailing in ballast, would be liable to all the above charges, with the exception of the last two.

The charge for water is levied without regard to tonnage; viz. sloops and schooners, 20 dollars each, brigs 30, and ships 40.

Port Regulations.-On casting anchor, a visit is paid by the collector of customs, or his agent, accompanied by other officers, who take from the master his register, manifest, and muster-roll, and an officer is left on board until the cargo is discharged. The master must swear to his manifest within 24 hours after his arrival, when the permit to discharge is granted, and within 3 days all invoices must be presented. The discharge completed, the same officers repair on board to examine the vessel, and all being found in order, the officer is withdrawn. The clearing of a vessel outwards (that has entered with cargo) in ballast is then completed by paying the port charges; proof whereof being produced, the permission to sail is signed by the governor and harbour master. If the vessel take cargo on board, then the same formality, as to visiting, is pursued, as on the entry of a vessel.

Bank

Credit.-Goods imported are almost invariably sold upon credit; those exported are, on the other hand always sold for ready money. The terms of credit vary from 2 to 6 months, or more. ruptcy is very rare.

Commission, Brokerage, &c.-Any one who pleases may undertake the functions of broker, factor, or merchant in Venezuela. The only obligation is the paying the patent or licence, that must be taken out by every one exercising such trades. This varies, according to the business, from about 11. 3s. 4d., to 661. 18s. 4d. a year, and falls on natives as well as foreigners. The rates of commission are as follows:

Insurance. There are no establishments for conducting the business of insurance in Venezuela. Money, Weights, and Measures.-The currency of the country consists of silver money, known by the name of macuquena, divided into dollars of 8 reals, do. of 4 reals, besides reals, reals, and quartillas or reals. This money is of very unequal weight and purity, the coins issued since the commencement of the revolutionary war having been often a good deal defaced. The real should be worth 5d. sterling.

Weights and measures same as those of Spain, but it is intended to introduce the British Imperial gallon.

Tures.-Real tare is taken both at the Custom-house and by the merchant.

Commercial Prospects. The commerce and industry of Venezuela suffered severely from the revolutionary struggle of which she has been the theatre. But the country is now comparatively tranquil, and there seem to be good reasons for thinking that she is about to enter on a career of prosperity. As the riches of Venezuela consist entirely of the products of her agriculture, the legislature has wisely exerted itself to give it all the encouragement possible. In this view tithes have been abolished, and heir collection was finally to cease on the 1st of January, 1834. The tobacco monopoly has also