deposited in magazines called "seraglie," until a purchaser casts up. The "seragliente," or warehouse keeper, delivers to the depositor a paper acknowledging the receipt of the quantity delivered, which passes currently in exchange from hand to hand till the time of export. Under the old Venetian government, the liberty of traffic in this produce was exceedingly restricted. In Zante, 5 persons chosen out of the council of nobles assembled in presence of the proveditore, regulated what should be the price; and those who wished to purchase were under the necessity of declaring to the government the quantity they desired. This system was called the "collegetto."* The export duties consisted of an original duty of 9 per cent. ad valorem; a dazio fisso, or fixed duty of about 4s. 4d. per cwt.; and afterwards of a novissimo, or most recent duty, of 28. 2d. per cwt. This latter was remitted in favour of vessels bringing salt fish, &c. from the northern ports (chiefly English, Danes, and Dutch) it was afterwards relaxed in favour of Russian vessels from Odessa, and abandoned altogether as vexatious and unproductive. The proveditore received in addition 2 per cent., and each of his 2 Venetian councillors I per cent.; so that the fruit, the original cost of which was about 9s. the cwt., stood the exporter in little less than 18s. or 198. Even under British protection, the fruit, which some years before had fetched as much as 30s. and 32s. the cwt., but had declined in 1832 to 8s. the cwt. was burdened with the dazio fisso of 4s. 4d., and a duty of 6 per cent. ad valorem, being equivalent together, at that price, to an ad valorem duty of nearly 60 per cent.! In the mean time the British parliament had, in 1829, raised the import duties payable in England to the enormous amount of 44s. 4d. the cwt., which, at the same low price, made an ad valorem duty of 500 per cent.! The consequence was rapidly visible; a decline took place in the culture of the plant, as well as in the circumstances and in the affections of the proprietors, whose staple export and means of existence were almost annihilated. As the prices fell, and the distress became greater, the necessitous grower was obliged to borrow money at ruinous interest from foreign merchants, or from the Jews, who were, consequently, able to dictate the price at which they would take his produce. A legislative enactment, on a scale commensurate with the difficulties which it had to grapple with, was, after much deliberation, matured and adopted by the 4th parliament in its session of 1833. By it the whole of the duties upon currants were commuted for an ad valorem tax of 19 per cent., being the same as that laid upon oil, The same act increased, in a small degree, the duties previously paid on the importation of coffee, tea, and sugar, and upon foreign wines, silks, and gloves,-articles which, being chiefly consumed by the affluent, were more appropriately subjected to an increase of duty, to supply in part the serious defalcation of revenue naturally consequent to the reduction of the currant duty. The duties thus increased upon objects of luxury may now amount to from 20 to 25 per cent., which is far from exorbitant. The good effects of this enactment were manifested by an almost instantaneous rise in the price of the fruit which had remained on hand of the crop of 1832. It is calculated that the average quantity of currants produced during the 4 years ending with 1832, has been 19,686,800 lbs. a year; the export has been 17,885,300 lbs. It appears from the accounts laid before the finance committee, that, in 1826, there were exported from the islands 176,974 lbs. of valonia; 32,063 casks of wine; and 723,646 lbs. of soap. Tonnage Duty.-The late act of parliament abolished the tonnage daty of 1s. 1d. per ton payable by every ship sailing under Ionian colours, which, together with the heavy fees demanded by the British consuls in the Levant, had driven most of the Cephalonite vessels to seek for protection under the flag of Russia. Loan Banks. Another act, intended to alleviate the distress experienced by the growers who had been the victims of usury in consequence of their pecuniary difficulties, provided for the establishment of loan banks with capitals (in the larger isles of 20,000l. each, and in the smaller ones in proportion), for lending money at 6 per cent. to the agricultural interest, on agricultural security, and thus employing the surplus which might otherwise lie idle in the treasury. These measures, it is presumed, will go far towards bettering the condition of the islands; and the anticipated reduction of the oppressive import duty upon currants in this country will do more.-(See CURRANTS.) Salt may be obtained in considerable quantities in Corfu, Zante, and Santa Maura, for exportation: the latter island alone produced it until the late act of parliament, which provided that government should let the salt pans in all the islands to those bidders who should offer, by sealed tenders, to supply it at the lowest rate to the consumer, paying at the same time the highest price to government. No export duty is charged upon it. It is apparent from these statements, that heavy duties are levied upon the exportation of the staple products of the islands,-an objectionable system, and one which, if it is to be excused at all, can only be so by the peculiar circumstances under which they are placed. There is no land tax or impost on property in the Ionian Islands, such as exists in many other rude countries; and, supposing it were desirable to introduce such a tax, the complicated state of property in them, the feudal tenures under which it is held, and the variety of usages with respect to it, oppose all but invincible obstacles to its imposition on fair and equal principles. At the same time, too, a large amount of revenue is required to meet the expenses of the general and local governments, to maintain an efficient police, and to prevent smuggling and piracy. However, we cannot help thinking that some very material retrenchments might be made from the expenditure; and it is to this source, more, perhaps, than to any other, that the inhabitants must look for any real or effectual relief from their burdens. Revenue and expenditure.—In 1830, the revenue and expenditure were as follows: A bill for reviving this institution, brought in by a Zantiote member, passed the legislative assem bly in May, 1833; but the senate threw it out, trusting that the enactments mentioned in this article would suffice to relieve the grower from the usurious oppression of the currant speculator. The Ionian republic affords, perhaps, the only example of a state expending nearly a fourth part of its revenue on public works and fortresses. Without, however, questioning the importance of the objects for which so heavy an expense has been incurred, we are inclined to think that the industry and prosperity of the islands would be far more likely to be advanced by the effectual reduction of the duties on the exportation of oil and currants than by any, even the most judicious outlay of the revenue derived from them. Ports. The principal ports in the Ionian republic are Corfu and Zante in the islands of the same name, and Argostoli in Cephalonia. The city and port of Corfu lie on the east side of the island, on the canal or channel between it and the opposite continent, which is here about 5 miles wide. The citadel, which projects into the sea, is furnished with a light-house, 240 feet high; the latter being in lat. 39° 37' N., lon. 19° 56' E. The town is but indifferently built. Population about 17,000, exclusive of the military. The fortifica tions are very strong, both towards the sea and the land. The canal has deep water throughout; its navigation, which is a little dif ficult, has been much facilitated by the erection of a light-house on the rock of Tignoso in the northern entrance, where the channel is less than a mile in width; and by the mooring of a floating light off Point Leschimo, in the southern entrance. Ships anchor between the small but well fortified island of Vido and the city, in from 12 to 17 fathoms water. The port, or rather gulf, of Argostoli in Cephalonia lies on the south-west side of the island. Cape Aji, forming its south-western extremity, is in lat. 38° 8 40 N., lon. 20° 23' 30" E. Cape San Nicholo, forming the other extremity, is about 4 3.4 miles from Cape Aji; and between them, within about 1 1-2 mile of the latter, is the small islet of Guardianí, on which is a light-house. From this island the gulf stretches N. 1-2 W. from 7 to 8 miles inland. The town of Argostoli lies on the west side of a haven on the east side of the gulf formed by Point Statura. The situation is low, and rather unhealthy. When visited by Dr. Holland, its population did not exceed 4,000. Its appearance and police, particularly the latter, have been much improved since its occupation by the English. There is deep water and good anchorage ground in most parts of the gulf. The best entrance is between Cape San Nicolo and Guardiani, keeping rather more than a mile to the eastward of the latter, on account of a reef that extends N. E. and S. W. from it nearly that distance. The port and city of Zante are situated on the eastern side of the island, in lat. 37° 47′ N., lon. 20° 54' 42 E. The city, the largest in the Ionian islands, extends along the shore for nearly 1 1-2 mile, but it is no where above 300 yards in breadth, except where it ascends the hill on which the citadel is erected. The style of building is chiefly Italian; and the interior of the city displays every where great neat ness, and even a certain degree of magnificence. Population estimated by Dr. Holland at from 16,000 to 18,000. It has a mole or jetty of considerable utility, at the extremity of which a light-house is erected; and a lazaretto, situated a little to the south-west. The harbour is capacious. Ships anchor opposite the town at from 500 to 1,000 yards' distance, in from 12 to 15 fathoms, availing themselves of the protection of the mole when the wind is from the N. E. When our troops took possession of Zante, in 1810, the fortifications were found to be in very bad repair; but immense sums have been since been expended upon their improvement and extension. Shipping. The entries (in tons) for 1826, the last year for which we have seen any detailed statement, were as follows: Trade with England.-This is but of very limited extent; a consequence, principally, of the enormous duty on currants. During the year 1831, we imported from the Ionian Islands 162,363 cwt. currants, 22 1-2 tons fustic, 251 cwt. flax, 100,242 gallons olive oil, 7,461 cwt. valonia, and 898 gallons wine. The real or declared value of the articles of British produce and manufacture exported to them during the same year, amounted to only 50,8831. The total value of the imports from all countries in 1831, is estimated at 510,7531., and that of the exports at 248,0581. But a considerable part of the imports is not destined for the consumption of the islands, but is sent thither merely as a convenient entrepôt, being in The pound, peso grosso, or great weight of 12 oz = 7,384 grains The pound, peso sottile, or small weight, used for precious metals The oke, used in the southern islands, weighs about 18,900 grains The migliajo (1,000 lbs.), for currants, in Zante, is 1 per cent. light- The Venetian foot of 12 onué 13 3-4 inches English. Do. for silks 27 3-16 inches English. =25 3-8 Land is measured by the misura or 1-8 of a moggio, or bacile; 400 Vineyards are measured by the zappada; 3 zappade (a computed Corn. Corfu and Paxo: Moggio of 8 misure, about 5 Winchester Cephalonia: Bacile should contain 80 lbs. peso grosso, best quality wheat. Zante: Bacile should contain 72 lbs. peso grosso, best quality wheat. Santa Maura: Cado, of 8 crivelli, 4 3 mog.; I cado = 3 3-4 bushels English. Ithaca 5 Bacile = 1 moggio. Cerigo: Chilo, the measure of Constantinople, = 1 bushel Eng. lish. Wine.-Corfu and Paxo: 32 quartucci = 1 jar, and 4 jars = 1 bar rel 18 English wine gallons. Cephalonia and Ithaca: 2 quartucci = 1 boccale; 12 boccali = 1 secchio; 6 secchio 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. Zante: 13 1-3 quartucci 1 lire; 40 quartucci I jar; 3 jars = 1 barrel 17 5-8 English wine gallons. Santa Maura: 22 quartucci 1 stamno; 6 stamni = 1 barrel = 18 English wine gallons. Cerigo: 2 agosten 1 boccia; 30 boccie 1 barrel = 18 Eng- Oil.-Corfu and Paxo: 4 quartucci 1 miltro; 6 miltri = 1 jar; Zante: 9 lire, or 3 jars of 46 qu. each = 1 barrel = 17 5-8 Eng- = 1 Santa Maura: 7 stamni = 1 barrel = 18 Eng. wine galls. Ithaca 13 pagliazzi = 1 = 18 Cerigo 24 bozze = 14 0-5 Salt.-Centinajo, about 4,000 lbs. Venetian peso grosso. Lime.-Corfu, measure of 4 English cubic feet. In compiling this article, we have consulted, besides the works referred to above, the Voyage Historique, Pittoresque, &c., by Saint Sauveur, a diffuse but valuable work. The account of Zante, in the last volume (tome iii. pp. 101-278.), is particularly good. We have also looked into the Voyage en Grece, of Scrofani, 3 tomes, Paris, 1801; the Archives du Commerce; the Papers laid before the Finance Committee, &c. But by far the most important part of the information we have been able to lay before the reader has been de rived from manuscript notes obligingly communicated by Lord King, late secretary to the British government in these islands. IPECACUANHA (Fr. Ipecacuanha; Ger. Amerikanische brechwurzel, It. Ipecoacanna; Port. Cipo de camaras, Ipecacuanha; Sp. Ipecacuana, Raiz de ora), the root of a perennial plant (Cephaëlis ipecacuanha) growing in Brazil and other parts of South America. It is, from its colour, usually denominated white, grey, or ash-coloured, and brown. Little of the first variety is found in the shops. The grey and brown varieties are brought to this country in bales from Rio Janeiro. Both are in short, wrinkled, variously bent and contorted pieces, which break with a resinous fracture. The grey is about the thickness of a small quill, full of knots and deep circular fissures, that nearly reach down to a white, woody, vascular cord that runs through the heart of each piece; the external part is compact, brittle, and looks smooth; the brown is smaller, more wrinkled, of a blackish brown colour on the outside, and whitish within: the white is woody, and has no wrinkles. The entire root is inodorous: but the powder has a faint, disagreeable odour. The taste is bitter, sub-acrid, and extremely nauseous. In choosing ipecacuanha, the larger roots, which are compact and break with a resinous fracture, having a whitish grey, somewhat semi-transparent, appearance in the outside of the cortical part, with a pale straw. coloured medullary fibre, are to be preferred. When pounded, ipecacuanha forms the mildest and safest emetic in the whole materia medica. Though probably employed in America from time immemorial, it was not introduced into Europe till the time of Louis XIV., when one Grenier, a French merchant, brought 150 lbs. of it from Spain, with which trials were made at the Hôtel Dieu. Helvetius first made known its use in dysentery, for which Louis XIV. munificently rewarded him by a douceur of 1,000l. sterling.-(Thomson's Dispensatory; Thomson's Chemistry.) IRON (Dan. Jern; Du. Yzer; Fr. Fer; Ger. Eisen; It. Ferro; Lat. Ferrum, Mars; Pol. Zelazo; Por. Ferro; Rus, Scheleso; Sp. Hierro; Sw. Jern; Gr. Zidnpos: Sans. Loha; Arab. Hedeed; Pers. Ahun), the most abundant and most useful of all the metals. It is of a bluish white colour; and, when polished, has a great deal of brilliancy. It has a styptic taste, and emits a smell when rubbed. Its hardness exceeds that of most other metals; and it may be rendered harder than most bodies by being converted into steel. Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8. It is attracted by the magnet or loadstone, and is itself the substance which constitutes the loadstone. But when iron is perfectly pure, it retains the magnetic virtue for a very short time. It is malleable in every temperature, and its malleability increases in proportion as the temperature augments; but it cannot be hammered out nearly as thin as gold or silver, or even as copper. Its ductility is, however, more perfect; for it may be drawn out into wire as fine at least as a human hair. Its tenacity is such, that an iron wire 0.078 of an inch in diameter, is capable of supporting 549-25 lbs. avoirdupois without breaking. Historical Notice.-Iron, though the most common, is the most difficult of all the metals to obtain in a state fit for use; and the discovery of the method of working it seems to have been posterior to the use of gold, silver, and copper. We are wholly ignorant of the steps by which men were led to practise the processes required to fuse it and render it malleable. It is certain, however, that it was prepared in ancient Egypt, and some other countries, at a very remote epoch; but it was very little used in Greece till after the Trojan war.-(See the admirable work of M. Goguet on the Origin of Laws, Arts, &c., vol. i. p. 140.) Species of Iron.-There are many varieties of iron, which artists distinguish by particular names; but all of them may be reduced under one or other of the 3 following classes: cast or pig iron, wrought or soft iron, and steel. 1. Cast or pig iron is the name given to this metal when first extracted from its ores. The ores from which iron is usually obtained are composed of oxide of iron and clay. The object of the manufacturer is to reduce the oxide to the metallic state, and to separate all the clay with which it is combined. This is effected by a peculiar process; and the iron, being exposed to a strong heat in furnaces, and melted, runs out into moulds prepared for its reception, and obtains the name of cast or pig iron. The cast iron thus obtained is distinguished by manufacturers into different varieties, from its colour and other qualities. Of these the following are the most remarkable: a. White cast iron, which is extremely hard and brittle, and appears to be composed of a congeries of small crystals. It can neither be filed, bored, nor bent, and is very apt to break when suddenly heated or cooled. b. Grey or mottled cast iron, so called from the inequality of its colour. Its texture is granulated. It is much softer and less brittle than the last variety; and may be cut, bored, and turned on the lathe. Cannons are made of it. c. Black cast iron is the most unequal in its texture, the most fusible, and least cohesive, of the three 2. Wrought or soft iron is prepared from cast iron by a process termed a refinement or finery. The wrought iron manufactured in Sweden is reckoned the finest in the world. 3. Steel consists of pieces of wrought iron hardened by a peculiar process. The Swedish iron imported into this country is mostly used in the manufacture of steel.-(See STEEL.)-(Thomson's Chemistry.) Uses of Iron.-To enumerate the various uses of iron would require a lengthened dissertation. No one who reflects for a moment on the subject, can doubt that its discovery and employment in the shape of tools and engines has been of the utmost importance to man; and has done more, perhaps, than any thing else, to accelerate his advance in the career of improvement. Mr. Locke has the following striking observations on this subject:-" Of what consequence the discovery of one natural body, and its properties, may be to human life, the whole great continent of America is a convincing instance; whose ignorance in useful arts, and want of the greatest part of the conveniences of life, in a country that abounded with all sorts of natural plenty, I think may be attributed to their ignorance of what was to be found in a very ordinary, despicable stone-I mean the mineral of iron. And whatever we think of our parts or improvements in this part of the world, where knowledge and plenty seem to vie with each other; yet, to any one that will seriously reflect upon it, I suppose it will appear past doubt, that, were the use of iron lost among us, we should in a few ages be unavoidably reduced to the wants and ignorance of the ancient savage Americans, whose natural endowments and provisions came no way short of those of the most flourishing and polite nations; so that he who first made use of that one contemptible mineral, may be truly styled the father of arts and author of plenty."-(Essay on the Understanding, book iv. c. 12.) Manufacture of Iron in Great Britain.-Iron mines have been wrought in this country from a very early period. Those of the Forest of Dean, in Gloucestershire, are known to have existed in the year 1066. In consequence of the great consumption of timber which they occasioned, they were reEtrained by act of parliament in 1581. Soon after this, Edward Lord Dudley invented the process of smelting iron ore with pit-coal instead of wood fuel; and it is impossible, perhaps, to point out an instance of another invention that has proved more advantageous. The patent which his Lordship had obtained in 1619, was exempted from the operation of the act of 1623 (21 Jac. 1. c. 23.), setting aside monopolies: but though in its consequences it has proved of immense value to the country, the works of the inventor were destroyed by an ignorant rabble, and he was well nigh ruined by his efforts to introduce and perfect his process; nor was it till about a century after, that it was brought into general use. In the early part of last century well-founded complaints were repeatedly made of the waste and destruction of woods caused by the smelting of iron; and the dearth and scarcity of fuel that was thus occasioned, led, about 1740, to the general adoption of Lord Dudley's process for using pit-coal, which was found to be in every respect superior to that previously in use. (Report of Committee of the House of Commons on Patents, p. 168. &c.) From this period, the progress of the manufacture has exceeded the most sanguine expectations. In 1740, the quantity of pig iron manufactured in England and Wales amounted to about 17,000 tons, produced by 59 furnaces. The quantities manufactured at the undermentioned epochs, in Great Britain, have been as follows: The extraordinary increase that has taken place in the production of iron since 1823, is principally to be ascribed to the high prices of 1824, 1825, and 1826, when pig iron met with a ready sale at from 97. to 127. and 137. a ton. But, in consequence partly of the failure or postponement of most of the projects as to rail-roads, &c., that were then on foot, and partly of the vast additional supplies which the extension of the manufacture threw on the market, the price fell in 1828 to from 51. to 7. a ton: and continued gradually to decline, till in 1832 it was only worth 41. 15s. So heavy a fall had the effect of introducing the severest economy into every department of the manufacture. In despite, however, of all the saving that could be effected in this way, many of the manufacturers were involved in much distress, and the production of iron is believed to have been considerably diminished. This, coupled with the increasing demand for iron, naturally led to a reaction. Prices began to rise early in 1833; and the advance has been such, that at present (January, 1834), pig iron fetches 61. a ton, and the manufacture is in a state of great activity. The following statements as to the number of furnaces and the quantity of iron produced in the different districts where the manufacture is carried on, in 1823, 1825, 1828, and 1830, appeared originally in the Birmingham Journal.—We have been assured that their accuracy may be depended upon. About 3-10ths of the total quantity of iron produced are used as cast iron, being consumed principally in Great Britain and Ireland; the exports, not exceeding 12,000 tons, go chiefly to the United States and British North America. The other 7-10ths are converted into wrought iron, being formed into bars, bolts, rods, &c. The exports of the different sorts of iron amount at present to about 145,000 tons, which, at 81. 10s. a ton, would be worth 1,232,500l. The increase of the iron manufacture has not only led to its exportation in very large quantities, but has reduced our imports of foreign iron for home consumption from about 34,000 tons, which they amounted to at an average of the 5 years ending with 1805, to about 18,000 or 20,000 tons, consisting principally of Swedish iron, which is subsequently manufactured into steel. The following is An Account of the British Iron (including unwrought Steel) exported from Great Britain in the Year 1835.- Quarters of a Hundred Weight and Pounds are omitted in the printing of this Table, but they are taken into account in the summing up. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cut. Tons. ct. Tons.cwt. Tons,cut. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. Tons.cwt. 3.. 36 5 2 11 0 3 1,270 19 294 6 921 10 10 12 1 10 47 2 Germany 168 15 284 6 170 6 5 15 814 4 131 17 Holland 172 11 1,527 17 Gibraltar 527 2 610 0 118 7 28 18 Malta 268 7 5 2 Morea and Greek islands 601 11 49 13 3,032 19 816 10 Africa 3,046 7 British colonies, N. Amer. 4,789 18 British West Indies 811 15 131 10 420 0 64 9 1 4 598 19 1,928 4 1,422 17 1,231 17 21 1 6 1 111 7 8 16 26 7 505 10 147 9 209 19 36 18 14 1 Brazil 2,047 5 1,860 4 374 16 195 2 90 0 68 6 194 10 4 5 98 4 333 19 621 11 571 15 139 1 1,107 5 1,130 16 400 10 339 11 616 17 160 6 70 7 3,212 0 105 11 1,137 19 2 8 118 1 4 8 375 8 3,534 14 4 14 1,886 6 784 7 348 3 337 19 17 16 8 6 7 5 540 17 2,346 19 13,957 0 5,179 19 20,182 19 2,810 In 1767, the iron exported from Great Britain amounted to only 11,000 tons. At an average of the 3 years ending with 1806, the exports amounted to 28,000 tons; being less than a fifth part of their amount in 1832. Supposing the total quantity of pig iron produced in Great Britain in 1833 to have amounted to 670.000 tons, and to have been worth at an average, 77. a ton, its total value will have been 4,690,000Z.; and the additional labour expended in forming the pig iron into bar iron, that is, into bars, bolts, rods, &c., may probably have added about 1,250,000l. more to its value; making it worth in all about 5,940,000l. Prices of Hardware.-We noticed, under the article HARDWARE (which see), the extraordinary fall which has taken place in the price of that description of goods since the peace. Since that article was printed, we have obtained from Mr. William Weston, accountant, Birmingham, the following Table of the prices of hardware articles, on which, we believe, every reliance may be placed. Comparative Prices of Hardware in and near Birmingham, in 1818, 1824, 1828, 1832; and in Jan., 1834. Articles. L. 8. d. L. 2 11 10 lb. 6 0 4 0 9 3米 0 13 0 [Iron ore occurs in great abundance in the United States. Immense masses of it have lately been discovered beyond the Alleghany mountains, especially in Kentucky and Missouri. But it is, perhaps, in Vermont, Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, that it has hitherto been chiefly worked. Extensive, however, as has been the production of American iron, there can be little or no doubt that this branch of our home industry is shortly destined to a very great expansion. In every successive year, iron is applied to uses never dreamed of by the preceding generation only a few years have elapsed since an extraordinary demand for it was created by the constructing of rail-roads; and it is not improbable that vast quantities of it will be wanted, before long, as the most desirable material for the building of houses and ships. But the enlarged demand for iron would have comparatively little effect in altering the relative proportions of it produced in the country itself and imported from abroad. The former of these will be augmented in a remarkable degree, at the expense, so to speak, of the latter, on account of the success which has attended the experiments lately made, on the Lehigh, in Schuylkill county, and elsewhere in Pennsylvania, for smelting the ore with anthracite coal instead of wood. This improvement, on account of the vicinity of the anthracite to the ore, cannot but diminish considerably the cost of producing iron, and therefore its price; which will, of course, be followed by an augmented production and consumption of it. Any diminution of the importation of iron into the country, which may be consequent upon the introduction generally of the improvement just mentioned, ought not to be regarded as in itself a national advantage. It can have no permanent effect in preventing the existence of an undue excess of importation above exportation. These, as every one in a slight degree only conversant with political economy is aware of, have a certain determinate average relation to each other,—a relation which is preserved, by whatever restrictive or forcible measures either the amount of the commodities imported, or that of the commodities exported, may be attempted to be diminished. If less iron than heretofore shall hereafter be procured from other countries, the inevitable result must be that the exports of the products of American capital and labour will be lessened in the same proportion. The indebtedness of the United States to Europe, in an embarrassing and more than ordinary degree, can only be prevented from recurring, at intervals of a very few years, when some mode shall have been devised of effectually guarding against an undue expansion of our currency, which, by causing a general rise of prices, offers an inducement for importing more from abroad, as well as for exporting less to foreign countries. The importations of iron and steel have been very considerable. They have amounted, in the last five years, to nearly fifty millions of dollars. And the duties remitted on iron,chiefly rail-road iron,--from the 1st of January, 1832, to June 30th, 1839, exceeded the sum of three millions and a half of dollars; "being in fact," says the Secretary of the Treasury, "a donation, or free subscription, by the general government, to that amount, chiefly in aid of rail-roads."—Am. Ed.] IRON-WOOD (Ger. Eisenholz; Du. Yserhout; Fr. Bois de fer; It. Legno di ferro ; Sp. Palo hierro; Lat. Sideroxylon, Lignum ferreum), a species of wood of a reddish cast, so called on account of its corroding as that metal does, and its being remarkably hard and ponderous,—even more so than ebony. The tree which produces it grows principally in the West India islands, and is likewise very common in South America, and in some parts of Asia, especially about Siam. ISINGLASS (Ger. Hausenblase, Hausblase; Fr. Colle de poisson, Carlock; It. Cola |