A denizen is an alien born, who has obtained letters patent, er donatione regis, to make him an English subject. He occupies a kind of middle station between a natural-born subject and an alien. He may acquire lands by purchase or devise, but not by inheritance; and may transmit such lands to his children born after his denization, but not to those born before. — (Blackstone's Com, book i. cap. 10.)

An alien may also be naturalised by serving on board any of his Majesty's ships of war, in time of war, for three years, or, if a proclamation has been issued to that effect, for two years.--(6 Geo. 4. cap. 109. $$ 16, 17.)

Influence of the Residence of Aliens. — There can be no doubt that, generally speaking, the resort of foreigners to a country, and their residence in it, are highly conducive to its interests. Those who emigrate in order to practise their calling in an old settled country are pretty uniformly distinguished for activity, enterprise, and good conduct. The native inhabitants have so many advantages on their side, that it would be absurd to suppose that foreigners should ever come into any thing like successful competition with them, unless they were acquainted with some branch of trade or manufacture of which the others were ignorant, or possessed superior skill, industry, or economy. But whether aliens practise new acts, or introduce more perfect processes into the old, or display superior economy, &c., their influx cannot fail to be of the greatest advantage. They practically instruct those among whom they reside in what it most concerns them to know, that is, in those departments of art and science in which they are inferior to others; and enable them to avail themselves of whatever foreign sagacity, skill, or practice has produced that is most perfect. It is not easy, indeed, to overrate the benefits conferred on most countries by the resort of aliens. Previously to the invention of printing, there was hardly any other way of becoming acquainted with foreign inventions and discoveries; and even now it is far easier to learn any new art, method, or process, from the example and instruction of those familiar with its details, than from the best possible descriptions. The experience, indeed, of every age and country shows that the progress of nations in the career of arts and civilisation depends more on the freedom of commerce, and on the liberality with which they have treated foreigners, than on almost any thing else.

English Legislation as to Aliens.

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But, notwithstanding what has been stated above, an antipathy to resident foreigners seems to be indigenous to all rude and uncivilised nations. Whatever is done by them appears to be so much taken from the employment, and, consequently, from the subsistence of the citizens; while the advantages resulting from the new arts or improved practices they introduce, for the most part manifest themselves only by slow degrees, and rarely make any impression on the multitude. Hence the jealousy and aversion with which foreigners are uniformly regarded in all countries not far advanced in civilisation. The early Greeks and Romans looked upon strangers as a species of enemies, with whom, though not actually at war, they maintained no sort of friendly intercourse. "Hostis," says Cicero," apud majores nostros is dicebatur, quem nunc peregrinum dicimus.”—( De Off. lib. 1. cap. 12.) It may, therefore, be considered as a striking proof of the good sense and liberality of those by whom it was framed, that a clause is inserted in Magna Charta which has the encouragement of commerce for its object; being to the effect, that "all merchants (if not openly prohibited before) shall have safe and sure conduct to depart out of and to come into England, to reside in and go through England, as well by land as by water; to buy and sell without any manner of evil tolls, by the old and rightful customs, except in time of war; and if they be of a land making war against us, and such be found in our nation at the beginning of the war, they shall be attached without harm of body or goods, until it be known unto us, or our chief justice, how our merchants be entreated in the land making war against us; and if our merchants be well entreated there, shall be so likewise here."

But until the era of Edward I. the stipulation in the Great Charter as to foreign merchants seems to have been little attended to. It is doubtful whether, previously to his reign, they could either hire houses of their own, or deal except through the medium of some Englishman. But this intelligent prince saw the advantage that would result to the trade and industry of his subjects from the residence and intercourse of Germans, Flemings, Italians, and other foreigners, who, at that time, were very superior to the English in most branches of manufactures and commerce. He, therefore, exerted himself to procure a repeal of some of the more oppressive restrictions on aliens, and gave them a charter which conveyed considerable privileges. Down, however, to the reign of Edward III., it continued to be customary to arrest one stranger for the debt, and even to punish him for the crimes and misdemeanors of others! It may appear extraordinary that the gross injustice of this barbarous regulation ever permitted it to be adopted; and yet it was probably, at one period, the common law of most European states. As soon, however, as the foundations of good order and civilisation began to

This charter was confirmed by Edward III. in 1328. Among other clauses, it has the following; viz. 1st, That on any trial between foreigners and Englishmen the jury shall be half foreigners; 2d. That a proper person shall be appointed in London to be justiciary for foreign merchants; and, 3d, That there shall be but one weight and measure throughout the kingdom. -(Anderson, anno 1302.)

be laid, its operation was seen to be most pernicious. In 1325, Edward II. entered into a convention with the Venetians, in which it was expressly stipulated that they should have full liberty to come to England to buy and sell commodities, without being liable for the debts or crimes of others. Conventions to the same effect were entered into with other foreigners. At length, in 1353, this disgraceful practice was put an end to by 27 Edward 3. stat. 2. cap. 17.; it being provided in this statute, not only that no stranger shall be impeached for the trespass or debt of another, but that, in the event of a war breaking out with any foreign power, its subjects, residing amongst us, shall be warned thereof by proclamation, and be allowed forty days to arrange their affairs, and to depart out of the kingdom; and that, under special circumstances, this term may be extended. There are few acts in the statute-book that reflect more credit on their proposers, or that have been more advantageous than this.

In consequence of the encouragement given by Edward III. to such of the woollen manufacturers of Flanders as chose to immigrate to England, a good many came over; and it is from their immigration that we may date the improvement and importance of the woollen manufacture in this country. (See WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.) But this policy, however wise and judicious, was exceedingly unpopular. The foreigners were openly insulted, and their lives endangered, in London and other large towns; and a few of them in consequence returned to Flanders. Edward, however, was not to be driven from his purpose by an unfounded clamour of this sort. A proclamation was issued, in which every person accused of disturbing or attacking the foreign weavers was ordered to be committed to Newgate, and threatened with the utmost severity of punishment. In a parliament held at York, in 1335, an act was passed for the better protection and security of foreign merchants and others, by which penalties were inflicted on all who gave them any disturbance. This seems to have had the effect,

for a while at least, of preventing any outrages.

The corporations of London, Bristol, and other great towns, have been at all times the principal enemies to the immigration of foreigners. Perhaps, indeed, they were not more hostile to them than to such of their own countrymen, belonging to another part of the kingdom, as should have attempted to settle amongst them without being free of their corporation. But in denouncing foreigners they had the national prejudice on their side; and their attempts to confirm and extend their monopolies by their exclusion were regarded as the noblest efforts of patriotism! Edward III. was fully aware of the real motives by which they were actuated, and steadily resisted their pretensions. But in the reigns of his successors they succeeded better: some of these were feeble and unfortunate, whilst others enjoyed the crown only by a disputed title, and in defiance of powerful competitors. The support of the great towns was of the utmost consequence to such princes, who, whatever might be their own opinion as to its policy, could hardly venture to resist the solicitations of such powerful bodies to exclude strangers, and to impose restrictions on commerce. From the death of Edward III. to the reign of Elizabeth, the progress made by the country was not inconsiderable, but it was little promoted by legislative enactments. Throughout the whole of this period, the influence of corporations seems to have predominated in all matters relating to trade and the treatment of foreigners; and our legislation partook of the selfish, monopolising character of the source whence it was principally derived. Were the acts and proceedings as to aliens the only memorials of our policy from 1377 to 1560, we should certainly seem to have retrograded materially during the interval. Some of these acts were passed with so little consideration, and were so very absurd, that they had to be immediately repealed. Of this sort was the statute of the 8 Henry 6. cap. 24., to the effect "that no Englishman shall within this realm sell, or cause to be sold, hereafter, to any merchant alien, any manner of merchandises, but only for ready payment in hand, or else in merchandises for merchandises, to be paid and contented in hand, upon pain of forfeiture of the same." But as an enactment of this sort was very speedily found to be more injurious to ourselves than to the foreigner, it was repealed in the following session.

The more tyrannical their conduct in other respects, the more were our princes disposed to humour the national prejudice against foreigners. If not a cheap, it was, at least, an easy method of acquiring popularity. In the very first parliament after the accession of Richard III., a statute was passed full of the most ridiculous, contradictory, and unfounded allegations as to the injury sustained by the influx of foreigners, and laying them under the most oppressive restraints. Considering, indeed, the sort of treatment to which aliens were then exposed, it may excite surprise that they should ever have thought of visiting the country; and, in point of fact, it appears that the resort of foreign merchants to our ports was materially impaired by the statutes referred to, and others of the same description. This is evident from the act 19 Henry 7. cap. 6., where it is stated that "woollen cloth is not sold or uttered as it hath been in divers parts,” and that “foreign commodities and merchandises are at so dear and exceeding

high price that the buyer cannot live thereon." But in despite of this authoritative exposition of the mischiefs arising from the restraints on aliens, and on trade, they were both increased in the reign of Henry VIII. And.it was not till the reign of Elizabeth that the pretensions of the corporations seem to have been disregarded, and an attempt made to act, not by starts, but consistently, on the policy of Edward III.

The influx of foreigners during the reign of Elizabeth was occasioned chiefly by the persecutions of the Duke of Alva and the Spaniards in the Low Countries. The friends of the reformed religion, which, at the time, was far from being firmly established, and the government, were glad to receive such an accession of strength; and from the superiority of the Flemings in commerce and manufactures, the immigrants contributed materially to the improvement of the arts in England. It would seem, however, that the ministers of Elizabeth contented themselves, perhaps that they might not excite the public prejudice, with declining to enforce the laws against aliens, without taking any very active steps in their favour.

In the reign of James I. the corporation of London renewed with increased earnestness their complaints of aliens. In 1622 a proclamation was issued, evidently written by James himself, in which, under pretence of keeping "a due temperament" between the interests of the complainants and those of the foreigners, he subjects the latter to fresh disabilities.

Since the revolution, more enlarged and liberal views as to the conduct to be followed with respect to aliens have continued to gain ground: several of the restraining statutes have fallen into disuse, while others were so much modified by the interference of the courts, which have generally been inclined to soften their severity, that their more offensive provisions became inoperative. In 1708, an act was passed, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of the corporations, for the general naturalisation of all foreign protestants; but the prejudice against them was still so powerful that it was repealed within about three years. Some attempts were afterwards made to carry a similar measure. One of these, about the middle of last century, occasioned the publication by Dr. Tucker of two excellent pamphlets, in which the policy of a natu ralisation act is ably vindicated, and the arguments against it successfully exposed. But, notwithstanding these efforts, nothing effectual was done to relieve aliens from the disabilities under which they laboured till 1844, when the 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66, was passed. This act authorises the secretary of state for the home department, on his receiving such evidence as he may think necessary in regard to any application by an alien for a certificate of naturalisation, to grant, if he think fit, such certificate. If granted, the certificate conveys to the alien (unless some special reservation be made in it) all the rights and privileges of a natural born British subject, except that he cannot be a member of either house of parliament, or a privy councillor. Probably this is as good a law as could be enacted in regard to this matter.

The following regulations have been issued by the secretary of state in reference to the grant of certificates:

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1. Upon an application to the secretary of state for the grant of a certificate of naturalisation, it will be necessary that the applicant should present to one of Her Majesty's principal secretaries of state a memorial praying for such grant, stating the age, profession, trade, or other occupation of the memorialist, the duration of his residence within the U. K., and of what friendly state he is a subject; whether he intends to continue to reside within this kingdom, and all other grounds on which he seeks to obtain any of the rights and capacities of a natural-born British subject.

2. That the memorialist should make an affidavit before a magistrate, or other person authorised by law to administer an oath, verifying all the statements in his memorial.

3. That a declaration should be made and signed by four householders at least, vouching for the respectability and loyalty of the memorialist, verifying also the several particulars stated in the memorial as grounds for obtaining such certificate; and that this declaration should be made in due form, before a magistrate, or other person authorised by law to receive such declaration, in pursuance of the act passed in the fifth and sixth years of his late majesty King William IV.

Policy of the Laws as to Aliens. The reason assigned by Mr. Justice Blackstone and others for preventing aliens from acquiring fixed property seem to be very unsatisfactory. In small states there might be grounds, perhaps, for fearing lest the easy admission of aliens to the rights of citizenship should give them an improper bias; but in a country like England such apprehensions would be quite futile. In this respect

Historical Remarks on the late Naturalisation Bill, 1751; Queries occasioned by the late Naturalisation Bill, 1752.

the example of Holland seems quite decisive. Notwithstanding the comparatively limited population of that country, it was "the constant policy of the republic to make Holland a perpetual, safe, and secure asylum for all persecuted and oppressed strangers; no alliance, no treaty, no regard for, no solicitation of any potentate whatever, has at any time been able to weaken or destroy, or make the state recede from protecting, those who have fled to it for their own security and self-preservation."-(Proposals for amending the Trade of Holland, printed by authority. Lond. 1751.)

A short residence in the country, and a small payment to the state, was all that was required in Holland to entitle a foreigner to every privilege enjoyed by a native. And it is of importance to remark, that it has not been so much as insinuated that this liberal conduct was in any instance productive of a mischievous result. On the contrary, all the highest authorities consider it as one of the main causes of the extraordinary progress made by the republic in wealth and commerce. It is said in the official paper just quoted, that " Throughout the whole course of all the persecutions and oppressions that have occurred in other countries, the steady adherence of the republic to this fundamental law has been the cause that many people have not only fled hither for refuge, with their whole stock in ready cash, and their most valuable effects, but have also settled and established many trades, fabrics, manufactures, arts, and sciences, in this country; notwithstanding the first materials for the said fabrics and manufactures were almost wholly wanting in it, and not to be procured but at a great expense from foreign parts."(Ibid.)

With such an example to appeal to, we are warranted in affirming that nothing can be more idle than to suppose that any number of foreigners which it is at all likely should ever come to England under the most liberal system for industrial purposes, or to escape religious or political persecutions in their own countries, should occasion any political inconvenience. But it should always be understood that their residence here is to depend on the propriety of their conduct. If they abuse the privileges accorded to them, and come among us not for the sake of an asylum, or for the prosecution of industrious pursuits, but that they may make this country a theatre for carrying on plots and hatching conspiracies against the governments of countries with which we may be in amity, in such case they forfeit all claim to hospitality; and cannot justly complain if they be (as they ought to be) deprived of their certificates and compelled to quit our shores.

ALKALIES. The distinguishing characters of these bodies are, a strong acrid and powerfully caustic taste; a corrosive action upon all animal matter, destroying its texture with considerable rapidity; exposed to the atmosphere, when in their caustic state, they absorb carbonic acid with great rapidity, and become carbonated (or mild). Their action upon vegetable colours also affords us means by which the presence of an uncombined or carbonated alkali may be detected; the yellow colour of turmeric is changed to a red brown tint when immersed into solutions containing them; the blue colour of the litmus, after being reddened by an acid, is again restored; the infusions of the red cabbage, the violet, and many other purple vegetable colours, are converted to green. Litmus paper reddened by carbonic acid is, however, the most delicate test of the presence of an alkali. With the various acids they also combine, forming the very important and extensive class of compounds generally called salts; a salt being any compound formed by the union of an acid with an alkali or metallic oxide.

Alkalimetry. The method by which the value of the alkalies, or carbonated alkalies, is determined, being of considerable importance in a commercial point of view, we shall here treat it somewhat in detail. It is an established fact, that 49 parts by weight of oil of vitriol of the specific gravity of 1 8485 are exactly equivalent to the neutralisation of 70 parts by weight of pure carbonate of potash, or 43 of pure potass, or 54 of carbonate of soda, or 32 of soda, and that 70 parts of oil of vitriol will therefore be necessary to neutralise 100 parts of carbonate of potass. Hence, by employing a glass tube of about two ounces' capacity, and accurately divided into 100 equal parts, taking 70 grains of oil of vitriol, and diluting it with water, to make the 100 measures complete, every measure of this dilute acid must be equal to a grain of pure carbonate of potass. The per-centage of real carbonate of potass existing in any sample of pearlash may be at once ascertained by taking 100 grains of the sample, dissolving it in hot water, straining, and adding by degrees 100 measures of the test acid above mentioned; the point of neutralisation (when it ceases to affect litmus paper or reddened litmus) being accurately ascertained, the residual acid will give the percentage of impurities; for instance, say that 75 measures of the dilute acid have been employed to render 100 grains of a sample of pearlash perfectly neutral, then we have ascertained that it contains 25 per cent. impurities. The same process of course must be followed in examining samples of barilla or kelp, except that the alkali contained in them, being carbonate of soda, 90-75 of oil of vitriol must be employed instead The process recommended by Mr. Faraday, and in which he uses only one test acid, is as follows:Into a tube about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and nine and a half long, and as cylindrical as possible throughout its whole length, 1,000 grains of water are to be weighed, and the space occupied marked on the tube by a fine file; this space is then divided from above downwards into 100 equal parts. At 23-44, or 76:56 parts from the bottom an extra line should be made, and soda marked opposite to it; at 48.96 potass should be marked in the same way; at 54 63 carbonate of soda; and at 65 carbonate of potass. A diluted acid is now to be prepared, which shall have a specific gravity 1-127, and this is made by mixing intimately together 19 parts by weight of oil of vitriol and 81 of water. The method to be followed in the employment of this acid is as follows:-The dilute acid is to be measured in the tube up to the line opposite to which the alkali sought for is marked; if barilla, which contains carbonate of soda, 54-63

of 70.

measures are to be taken. The 100 measures are then made up by the addition of water, and is then ready for use, following the method before stated.

The alkalies are four in number, namely, ammonia (or volatile alkali), potass (or vegetable alkali), soda (or mineral alkali), and lithia; which last is of so little importance that we shall not treat of it here. The combinations of these alkalies with the various acids, whenever they form compounds of any importance, will be noticed.

Ammonia, or Spirits of Hartshorn, or Volatile Alkali, in its uncombined form, is an elastic gaseous body, having a very pungent and suffocating odour, destroys animal life, converts the yellow of turmeric paper to a brown, which, from the volatility of the alkali, is again restored by a gentle heat to its original colour. This gas is rapidly absorbed by water, which takes into solution about 780 times its volume, forming the liquid ammonia, or what is commonly called hartshorn. Ammonia is liberated whenever any of the compounds of this alkali are acted upon by potass, soda, lime, and many other alkaline carths. Lime, from its being the most economical, is generally employed; the best proportion for its preparations are equal weights of sal ammoniac (muriate of ammonia), and fresh slaked lime. When these are introduced into a retort, and heat applied, ammonia is liberated in the gaseous form, and is conducted by a Wetter's safety tube into a vessel of water, by which the gas is instantly absorbed. Muriate of lime remains in the retort; sometimes water is added to the mixture, and then distilled. As thus obtained, it has a specific gravity of 930 or 1940, water being equal to 1000. The most concentrated solution of ammonia has the specific gravity 875.

Carbonate of Ammonia, or Volatile Salt, or Subcarbonate of Ammonia. — This salt, which is very much employed in various processes of the arts, was formerly obtained by the action of chalk (carbonate of lime) upon muriate of ammonia; a double decomposition takes place. Carbonic acid and ammonia are subl med in vapour, and muriate of lime remains in the vessel. A much less expensive process is, however, now followed, namely, from the waste gas liquors obtained in the purification of coal gas; these are evaporated, and the black impure sulphuric acid added. By this means a sulphate of aminonia is formed, and the carbonate procured from it by the action of powdered chalk, as in the former process.

Its uses are principally in forming other compounds of ammonia, as smelling salts; and it is likewise employed rather extensively by pastry cooks for making light pastry, which is caused by the volatile carbonate of ammonia escaping and raising up the pastry by the heat of the oven. It is entirely dissipated during the baking, so that no ill effect can arise from its use.

Both this compound and the preceding act as violent stimulants on the animal system.

Muriate of Ammonia, or Sal Ammoniac, was formerly brought to this country from Egypt, where it was procured by submitting the soot of camels' dung (there employed for fuel) to sublimation in closed vessels, it is, however, at present manufactured in very large quantities in this country in a variety of ways. The most economical processes are either submitting sulphate of ammonia mixed intimately with muriate of soda (sea salt) to sublimation, or by substituting the bittern of sea water, which consists chiefly of muriate of magnesia, for the sea salt. In the first process a sulphate of soda is formed, and the muriate of ammonia, which, being volatile, rises in the vaporous form, and is condensed in the cool parts of the apparatus; in the latter process a sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) results. It is generally from this salt (muriate of ammonia) that the liquid ammonia is manufactured; it is also employed in tinning and soldering, to preserve the metals from oxidation. It is a semi-transparent, tough salt, having an acrid and cool taste, and is usually met with in the form of hemispherical masses. Sal ammoniac is made at Calcutta, and is thence exported to Great Britain, the United States, and the Arabian and Persian gulfs. In 1824-25 the exports amounted to 114 tons.

Sulphate of Ammonia. The preparation of the sulphate has been already given under the head of ammonía; it is employed in the manufacture both of the carbonate and muriate.

Acetate of Ammonia. The spirit of Mindererus is obtained by acting upon the carbonate of ammonia by acetic acic; the carbonic acid escapes with effervescence, and an acetate of ammonia is formed; it is employed in medicine as a febrifuge.

All these salts of ammonia have the following properties; they are volatile at a low red heat; the fixed alkalies decompose them, combining with their acid, and the ammonia is liberated. When combined with a fixed acid, such as the boracic or monia alone being volatilised, and the acid remaining pure. pure phosphoric acid.

phosphoric, they are decomposed, the amThis process was described for obtaining

Potass, or Vegetable Alkali. — The original source of this alkali is in the vegetable kingdom, whence is derived its name of vegetable alkali. When wood is burnt, and the ashes lixiviated with water, boiled, strained, and evaporated to dryness, an intensely alkaline mass is obtained, which is known by the name of potash, from this process being conducted in iron pots. It is then removed to a reverberatory furnace, and submitted to heat, and a current of air. This burns out extractive matter and other impurities, and the salt assumes a pearly white colour, and is hence called pearlashes. Care should be taken, during this process, that the potashes do not enter into fusion, as this would destroy the full effect of the operation. Pearlashes. Pearlashes generally contain about from 60 to 83 or 84 per cent. of pure carbonate of potass. Its uses in manufactures are numerous and important. It is employed in making flint-glass, of which it constitutes about one sixth of the materials employed; in soap-making, especially for the softer kinds of soap; for this purpose, however, it is first rendered caustic by means of lime. In the rectifi. cation of spirits large quantities are employed to combine with the water previously in union with the spirit.

Subcarbonate of Potass, or Salt of Tartar, is used in preparing the subcarbonate of potass of the Pharmacopoeia (carbonate of potass of the chemical nomenclature), and likewise in rendering hard spring waters soft, and in cleansing substances from grease: it is sometimes called salt of wormwood. When made by the deflagration of two parts of tartar of argol and one of nitre, it is called black flux, and is used extensively in metallurgic operations.

From the subcarbonate of potash the pure and uncombined potass is obtained, by adding an equal weight of fresh burnt lime, previously slaked, and boiling them with half their weight of water. By this process the lime combines with the carbonic acid, and the potass remains in solution in its caustic state; by boiling the clear solution rapidly in iron vessels, and submitting it to fusion, we obtain the fused potass.

If it be required perfectly pure for chemical purposes, it is necessary to evaporate in silver vessels, and dissolve in strong alcohol. This takes up the pure potass, and leaves any portion of the subcarbonate that may not have been acted upon by the lime; then the alcohol is to be distilled off, and the potass fused at a red heat, and poured out in its liquid state on a cold slab. As thus procured, it is a white, brittle mass, highly deliquescent, absorbing moisture and carbonic acid rapidly from the atmosphere. When evaporated in iron vessels it has a dirty colour, and lets fall a quantity of oxide of iron, when dissolved in water from its having acted upon the iron boilers.

Potass acts with great rapidity upon animal substances, destroying their texture, and is on this account employed as a caustic, and was formerly called lapis infernalis.

Carbonate (or, in the chemical nomenclature, Bicarbonate) of Potass, is prepared by passing carbonic acid gas through a solution of the subcarbonate: and evaporating at a temperature below 2120, and crystallising. It is used in making effervescing draughts. It loses one proportion of its carbonic acid when heated, and is converted into the subcarbonate.

Sulphate of Potass, or Sal Polychrest, or Vitriolated Tartar, is obtained by submitting the salt, which remains after the manufacture of nitric acid from nitre and sulphuric acid, to a red heat, or by neutralising the excess of acid contained in that salt by subcarbonate of potass.