CHAP. VII.]

CESSIONS TO FRANCE AND SWEDEN.

637

that the Catholic religion should be upheld in these provinces and towns. France was empowered to maintain a garrison in Philippsburg. The Breisgau and the Forest towns of the Rhine were to be restored to the House of Austria. It had been debated whether France should hold Alsace as a fief of the Empire, with a seat in the German Diet, or in full sovereignty. D'Avaux had inclined to the former plan, which was also supported by the Elector of Bavaria, and several of the Catholic states of Germany; while, on the other hand, it was opposed by the Protestant states assembled at Osnabrück, and by the Emperor, who was unwilling to see his most dangerous enemy admitted, as it were, into his very household. Servien too, the colleague of D'Avaux, disapproved of a plan that would lower the dignity of France, by rendering its king a vassal of the Emperor; and this view of the matter prevailed at the French Court.

For the satisfaction of Sweden were ceded to her, as perpetual and hereditary fiefs, Western Pomerania, together with Stettin and the towns of Gartz, Damm, and Gollnau at the mouth of the Oder, the islands of Wollin and Rügen, the city and port of Wismar in Mecklenburg, and the secularised sees of Bremen and Verden, the former as a duchy, the latter as a principality; with a seat and triple vote in the Diets of the Empire. Sweden was allowed to erect a university, which was afterwards established at Greifswald.

Other articles regulated the compensation to be made to German princes; by which the Houses that chiefly profited were those of Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Brunswick, and Hesse. Brandenburg, which was soon to assume a foremost rank among the German states, for the part of Pomerania which she abandoned to Sweden, received the bishopric of Halberstadt with the signories of Lora and Klettenberg, the bishoprics of Minden and Camin secularised as principalities, and, after the death of Prince Augustus of Saxony, the reversion of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg secularised as a duchy.

By the Peace of Westphalia the independence of the Swiss cantons was recognised, and the Empire tacitly abandoned the Netherlands, nor made any provision for the free navigation of the Rhine. The question respecting the succession to the inheritance of Juliers was referred to future adjustment. There were many other articles respecting the surety and guarantee of the peace, its execution, the pay of the soldiery, evacuation of fortresses, &c., which it is not necessary here to detail.30

30 The chief work on the Peace of Westphalia is that of Meiern, Acta Pacis Westphalicæ publica, Hanover, 1734, 6 vols.

fol. The treaties are in Bougeant, liv. x. t. vi., and Dumont, t. vi. pt. i. p. 450 sqq. Woltmann's Gesch. des Westphäli

638

THE POPE DECLARES THE TREATIES NULL.

[BOOK IV.

As the Pope seemed to be included in the peace as an ally of the Emperor, under the expression "the princes and republics of Italy," the nuncio Chigi, immediately after the completion of the treaty, entered a protest against it (October 26th 1648); though not so much against the peace itself, as against the articles which it contained detrimental to the Church of Rome; and Pope Innocent X. soon after published a bull (November 26th) declaring the treaties of Münster and Osnabrück null and void. Such weapons, however, were now mere bruta fulmina. Even the Roman Catholic princes, who were glad to see the war terminated, gave little heed to the Pope's proceedings; and Ferdinand III. himself, notwithstanding his devotion to the Holy See, did not hesitate to forbid the circulation of the bull.31

Thus the policy of France and Sweden was entirely successful. These countries, besides raising up a counterpoise to the power of the Emperor in Germany itself, had succeeded in aggrandising themselves at the expense of the Empire. Sweden, indeed, in the course of a few years was to lose her acquisitions; but France had at last permanently seated herself on the Rhine; the House of Austria lost the preponderance it had enjoyed since the time of Charles V., which was now to be transferred to her rival, and, during the ensuing period, we shall have to contemplate France as the leading European power; a post which she mainly owed to the genius and policy of Cardinal Richelieu. With the peace of Westphalia begins a new era in the policy and public law of Europe; but the consideration of this subject we postpone to the following Book.

ALBEMARLE STREET:

December 1861.

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