222 PROSPERITY OF THE LOW COUNTRIES. [Book III. the states took an oath of allegiance, they stipulated the right of withdrawing it in case the prince should violate their constitution. The only institutions which supplied any links of union among the different provinces were the States-General, or assembly of deputies sent from each, and the Supreme Tribunal established at Mechlin, having an appellate jurisdiction over them all. The States-General, however, had no legislative authority, nor power to impose taxes, and were but rarely convened. Hence, Charles V. himself, with all his power as sovereign of the Netherlands, was only the head of a republican confederation. He had, however, made some innovations. He named and paid the judges composing the Mechlin tribunal; he sometimes nominated the provincial judges; he interfered in the election of magistrates. But the circumstance of his having been born in Flanders, the predilection which he always manifested for his native land, and the favours which he heaped on Flemings at the expense of his Spanish subjects, had rendered him popular in the Low Countries in spite of his encroachments and oppressions. In the middle of the 16th century the Netherlands enjoyed a greater share of prosperity than any other European state. At that time the seventeen provinces contained more than 350 cities and 6300 towns, besides innumerable villages. Commerce, agriculture and manufactures flourished; and though the trade of Ghent, from causes already mentioned, had somewhat fallen off, the deficiency had been more than made good by the rise of Antwerp, whose share through Spain and Portugal in the commerce of the Indies, had rendered it one of the richest cities in Europe, whilst Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and other towns were by the same means rapidly increasing. Hence the Netherlands formed the chief treasury both of Charles V. and Philip II. Charles drew from them in a few years twenty-four million ducats; yet through the ill policy of Philip, they soon became unable to supply his necessities. Nor were the people of the Netherlands thriving only in a material sense. They were also well educated, and it was rare to find even a peasant who could not read and write." Among such a people the doctrines of the Reformation found easy entrance, and were soon extensively adopted. The Lutheran tenets were naturally the first to find acceptance, and they con The members of the States-General were not representatives chosen by the people, but deputies, or ambassadors, from certain provinces. The different provinces had also their own States, which were variously composed. Relatione di Soriano, ap. Prescott, Philip II. vol. i. p. 310. Guicciardini, Descrittione de' Paesi Bassi, p. 41 (ed. 1581). Guicciardini resided more than forty years in the Netherlands. CHAP. VII.] RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION OF CHARLES V. 223 tinued to predominate in the provinces bordering upon Germany, while Holland and Zealand abounded with Anabaptists. But Calvinism rapidly penetrated into the Walloon provinces, and its disciples soon outnumbered both the other sects put together. The state of religion in the Netherlands had early attracted the notice of Charles V., and between the years 1520 and 1550 he published no fewer than eleven "Placards," or edicts, for the suppression of the reformed faith. The last, which appeared in 1550, and which has been already described, formed the groundwork of Philip II.'s subsequent proceedings. Charles V. had also attempted to introduce the Spanish inquisition into Flanders, and obtained a bull from his old preceptor, Pope Adrian VI., appointing an inquisitor-general; but the people rose and compelled the new and unwelcome functionary to fly for his life. The scheme was then altered. By another bull four inquisitors were appointed, belonging to the secular clergy, whose powers, which, however, during twenty years were ill defined, were in some degree placed under control of the law; and in 1546 it was decreed that no sentence pronounced by an inquisitor should be carried into execution, except with the sanction of a member of the Provincial Council. Hence the Flemish tribunal was far less terrible than the Spanish. Nevertheless many thousand persons are said to have perished in the Netherlands, during the reign of Charles, for their religious opinions; in spite of which that sovereign, in the last year of his reign, confessed that the evil went on increasing.7 Such briefly was the condition of the Netherlands when they passed under the dominion of Philip II. of Spain in the manner already related. The predilections of that monarch soon called See above, p. 80. "Letter of Charles, Brussels, Jan. 27th 1555; in Gachard, Corr. de Philippe II. Rapport, &c., t. i. p. cxxii. The number of Protestant victims is variously computed at 30,000 (Ranke, Popes, vol. ii. p. 18) and 50,000 (Watson, Philip II. vol. ii. p. 101). Grotius even estimates them at 100,000. Annales, lib. i. p. 17 (ed. 1658). The chief sources for the history of the Netherlands, and their revolt under Philip II. are: Guicciardini, Belgica, sive Inferioris Germaniæ, Descriptio; Strada, De Bello Belgico; Bentivoglio, Della Guerra di Fiandra; Grotius, Annales et Historie de Rebus Belgicis; Basnage, Annales des Provinces Unies, avec la Description historique de leur Gouvernement; Meteren, Hist. des Pays Bas (1315—1612) traduit du Flamand (La Haye, 1618); Brandt, Hist. of the Reformation in the Low Countries (from the Dutch, London, 1720); Aubéri, Mém. pour servir à l'Hist. des Provinces Unies; Petit, Chronique d' Hollande; Van der Vynckt, Hist. des Troubles des Pays Bas (extending from 1495 to the Peace of Westphalia, 1648; written in indifferent French, but with good judgment and information); Hopper, Recueil et Mémorial des Troubles des Pays Bas du Roi; Schiller, Gesch. des Abfalls der vereinigten Niederlande (interesting, but of little authority); Prescott, Hist. of Philip II.; Motley, the Rise of the Dutch Republic. Recently published original documents relating to the subject are: Correspondance de Guillaume le Taciturne, and Corr. de Philip II, edited by M. Gachard, who was employed by the Belgic Government to consult the ar 224 UNPOPULARITY OF PHILIP II. [Book III. him back to his Spanish dominions. By birth, language, and manners, he was entirely a Spaniard, and was always regarded as a foreigner by the Flemings; nor had his stay among them removed the unfavourable impression produced at his first visit. His cold and haughty manners ill accorded with the temper of the Netherlanders, and instead of meeting the hearty, joyous greetings of the people, he shut himself up in his carriage and seemed anxious to avoid their gaze. A scene that occurred before Philip's departure already gave token of future troubles. In an assembly of the States-General at Ghent, loud complaints were uttered of religious persecution and the presence of Spanish troops. Philip's first care after his accession had been directed to religion. He confirmed Charles's "Placard" of 1550; making, however, by the advice of the Bishop of Arras, no alteration in the original edict, in order to shelter himself under the popularity attaching to his father's name. He had also matured a scheme for a complete revolution in the Belgian hierarchy, which was put in execution a year or two later. At present popular indignation was chiefly directed against the Spanish troops, who, though not more than 3000 or 4000 in number, had committed the most scandalous excesses. A paper signed by William Prince of Orange, Lamoral Count Egmont, and many other leading nobles, complaining of the pillage, insults, and other disorders daily perpetrated by the Spanish soldiery, was presented to the King before the adjournment of the States-General in the name of that body. Philip was furious at hearing remonstrances to which he was so totally unaccustomed. He abruptly quitted the hall, and turning round at the door, inquired, "whether he also, as a Spaniard, was expected to leave the country?" His suspicions had already been excited against Orange and Egmont by a letter of the prince's which had fallen into his hands. William, when a hostage at the court of France for the execution of the treaty of Câteau-Cambrésis, had accidentally learnt more than was convenient of Philip's future policy, Henry II., who took him for a staunch Catholic, having communicated to him the secret determination of himself and the Spanish King to extirpate heresy; but, although the prince at that time belonged to the Roman communion, nobody could be further re chives of Simancas: Archives de la Maison d'Orange Nassau, published by M. Groen van Prinsterer (both these editors have endeavoured to place the conduct of Philip II. in the most favourable light); Corr. de Marguerite d'Au triche, published by Baron Reiffenberg for the Soc. des Bibliophiles de Belgique. Sources accessible only to those who read Dutch or Flemish have not been mentioned. CHAP. VII.] HE SAILS FOR SPAIN. 225 moved from bigotry, or entertain a more sincere dislike of all religious persecution. Notwithstanding his suspicions, Philip found it impossible to neglect men of so much power and influence as Orange and Egmont, and he was obliged to leave them in possession of their governments, those of William being Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, and West Friesland, while Egmont had Flanders and Artois. The King also found it politic to concede on the subject of the Spanish troops; but he would not yield a jot with regard to religion, declaring that he would rather not reign at all than rule over heretics. When on the point of embarking at Flushing for Spain (August 20th 1559), he could not help again manifesting his anger at the constraint which had been put upon him; and turning abruptly to the Prince of Orange, he accused him of having organised the opposition. William in reply having attributed it to the States in general, Philip seized his wrist, and shaking it violently, exclaimed in Spanish, "No, no! not the States, but thou, thou, thou!"9 An ominous separation! Orange took care not to trust himself on board the Spanish fleet. Before his departure Philip II. had appointed his sister Margaret to be Regent of the Netherlands, a natural daughter of Charles V. by a Flemish lady, and wife of Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma. Thus the Low Countries were administered almost consecutively by three princesses of the House of Austria, and by all with distinguished ability. Margaret was now thirty-seven years of age. From her masculine understanding Strada 10 characterises her as a man in petticoats; yet she was not destitute of the gentler qualities of her sex. Philip had received her with great state on her arrival at Brussels in June 1559, and early in August presented her to the States-General as the future Regent. She was assisted in the government by three ancient councils, -the Council of Finance, the Privy Council for Justice and Home Affairs, and the Council of State for Foreign Affairs. The Prince of Orange and Count Egmont were included in the last, together with Granvella and some members of the other councils. Besides these, Margaret had also another smaller council, or cabinet, consisting of only three members, and called the Consulta: these were, Count Barlaimont, President of the Council of Finance; Viglius, President of the Privy Council; and Granvella, Bishop of Arras. "No los Estados, mas vos, vos, vos!" -Aubéri, Mém. t. i. p. 11, ed. London, 1754. A speech the more bitter, because VOL. II. vos in Spanish, like toi in French, implies contempt. 10 De Bell, Belg. lib. i. t. i. p. 30 (ed. 1640). 226 NEW BELGIAN BISHOPRICS. [Book III. Barlaimont was a Flemish noble of the first class, of great integrity and loyalty; Viglius was an eminent jurist, a good writer, and sagacious statesman, of dogged tenacity, and not over-scrupulous honesty. Granvella we have already had occasion to describe as the minister of Charles V., who recommended him to Philip. His qualities were congenial with those of that monarch, his manners were polished, he was a good courtier, and the Flemings detested him equally with his sovereign. His post of primeminister was an additional cause of hatred with the Flemish nobles, who thought that it should have been filled by one of their own body. Philip had engaged that the Spanish troops should be withdrawn from the Netherlands in four months; yet they still remained, though there was no foreign war to require their presence, which could, therefore, only be ascribed to a design to enforce the King's arbitrary acts; and Orange and Egmont resigned their employments, alleging that they dared not hold them because the government had become so unpopular. Granvella perceived his danger, and pressed Philip to withdraw the troops for fear of an insurrection. The King demurred on the plea that he could not pay up their arrears; an allegation hardly to be credited considering their small number, although the royal exchequer was undoubtedly low. At length some members of the council became security for the arrears and the troops sailed in January, 1561, nearly a twelvemonth after the stipulated time. In the same year the discontent was increased by the introduction into the Council of a plan for the erection of several new bishoprics: which, though it had been some years in agitation, had as far as possible been kept secret. Hitherto the whole of the Netherlands had contained only four bishoprics; namely, those of Utrecht, Arras, Tournay, and Cambrai, the first of which acknowledged the Archbishop of Cologne as its metropolitan, while the last three were in the diocese of Rheims. The extent of these bishoprics was necessarily enormous and inconvenient, Utrecht alone comprising 300 towns and 1100 churches. Charles V. had contemplated erecting six new bishoprics, but effected nothing; and Philip II., soon after his accession, obtained the sanction of Pope Paul IV. for the erection of three metropolitan sees-namely, Utrecht, Mechlin, and Cambrai, in which were to be comprehended the following bishoprics: in Utrecht the sees of Haarlem, Middelburg, Lieuwarden, Groningen, and Deventer; in Mechlin, the principal, the bishoprics of Antwerp, Bois le Duc, Rurmonde, Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres; in Cambrai, those of |