itions and afford stepping-stones by which the mind to a certain extent rises out of and above mere consciousness or phenomena into the realm of being as such.

Psychology. The method just described yields within consciousness the following general truths. There are three great classes of "facts of consciousness,"— facts of sensation, of reason, and of will. 1. Those of will are as Maine de Biran has shown - facts of personality: the will is the me; prior to the development of the will, man is merely a natural being. With will, and will alone, is he personality. A distinction must be drawn between conscious, or reflective, volition and a certain primary volition of which we must become cognizant before conscious volition can occur, an unconscious volition such as artistic genius manifests. It is unconscious rather than conscious volition that constitutes the essence of personality. 2. Will is the basis of the self-activity of reason, and its independence of sensation, without which it would not be reason. The facts of reason are embraced in three "integrant and inseparable elements," viz., the ideas of (1) substance, embracing those of the absolute, the infinite, etc.; (2) cause, embracing those of plurality, difference, the conditioned, the finite, the phenomenal, etc.; (3) the union of these, since unity and plurality, identity and difference, etc., presuppose one another. These ideas are not subjective and relative, but objective and absolute and first because reason (unlike will, which is individual and personal) is non-individual and impersonal, is an emanation from a universal reason, or God; second, it is (as observation attests) a spontaneous principle having an immediate apperception of the truth germane to it. Relativity and subjectivity in our thinking is the result of reflection, which, as mediatory in nature, admits of error's creeping in at one or more points of the discursive process it involves, which cannot occur in immediate apperception.

Ontology. If now the ideas of substance and cause and the syntheses of these two are of objective significance, we have a means of getting at external reality as such,

In other words, we

of apprehending supersensible being. know that there is a real cause of our sensations outside us, that there is a real nature corresponding to the idea of the ego, and that there is a real being (God) above ego and the external world. The external world, causing our sensations, can be only of the nature of force, is not mechanical but dynamical in constitution. The ego which we perceive as willing, exercising reason, and having sensations, has, as possessing these attributes, an absolute existence, an essential and ever-abiding reality. God, as the synthesis of ego and its opposed non-ego, is comprehensible. He is both substance and cause, cause because substance, and vice versa, unity and multiplicity, the infinite and the finite, humanity and nature; which is a view of the Deity that avoids the error of pantheism, since this makes God only substance, thus denying the freedom of the ego and the independence of the world. God creates the universe out of himself by a spontaneous non-reflective exercise of energy. In nature his creative energy appears as expansion (passage from unity to multiplicity) and contraction (the reverse process); in us as self-distinction and selfidentification in consciousness.

Ethics. The basis of morality is reason; self-love and sympathy are variable and uncertain as principles. We judge an act of ours to be good or bad according as it conforms or does not conform to a universal rule of reason called the Good, applied to such acts by an act of self-observation. From the idea of the Good flow those of duty, virtue, and the summum bonum. The moral commands of reason are, since man is essentially free: (1) Maintain thy freedom; (2) Recognize the freedom of others as thy own (the duty of justice). These are supplemented by obedience to the impulse of devotion, or self-sacrifice. The harmony of reason, freedom, and happiness is the highest good.

History of Philosophy. The three ideas of the reason the "infinite," the "finite" and their synthesis have been the foundation of philosophy (as of life) in every age.

Of the three, that of the "infinite" is the most distinctive in Oriental thought, that of the "finite" in Greek thought, and their synthesis in modern thought. Systems of philosophy as they have appeared in history may be classified as sensational, idealistic, sceptical, mystical. These are all imperfect forms of the one true philosophy, eclecticism.

Result. Though not of great originality or profoundity (as indeed he did not claim to be), Cousin has had a very great influence on the thought of the century, particularly in his own country and in America. He was a remarkably skilful popularizer of philosophical truth.

§ 109.

Théodore Simon Jouffroy (1796-1842). Jouffroy was educated at the College of Dijon and at the École Normale in Paris, where he had Cousin as instructor in philosophy. He became an assistant instructor in the Normal School, lecturer at the Collège de Bourbon and in the University of Paris, and adjunct professor to Royer Collard in the last-named institution. He was at one time member of the Chamber of Deputies. He was elected to the Academy in 1833.

Works. Original works of Jouffroy are: "Mélanges Philosophiques" (1833), a miscellany of philosophical writings; "Cours de Droit Naturel" ("Course in Natural Right"), (1835); "Nouveaux Mélanges Philosophiques (posthumous); "Cours d'Esthétique" (posthumous). (He translated Reid's works and the "Outlines of Moral Philosophy" by Dugald Stewart. He also edited, in an abridged form, Kant's “Kritik der reinen Vernunft,” 1842.)

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Philosophy. The only salvation for philosophy — as distinguished from physiological psychology is the recognition that there is a distinct order of facts for it to deal with, and that there must be a more profound observation of human nature" than has yet been employed. Human nature has a twofold character: it is both free and subject to necessary laws; it has a psychological and a physiological

side; it is personal and impersonal. It possesses the faculties of liberty of will, of primitive inclinations, of voluntary motion, of speech, of feeling pleasure and pain, of sensible perception, conception, and abstraction (intellectual faculties). Human action, as a part of a universal order, is to be judged according to the degree of its conformity with that, or, in other words, with the destiny of human nature. Beauty is that which affords a disinterested pleasure. The elements of beauty are order and proportion; its conditions are unity and variety.

§ 110.

Robert de Lamennais1 (1782-1854). Lamennais was educated for the priesthood, and until 1834 was a stanch defender of the faith and the infallibility of the authority of the Romish Church in matters of religion. After 1834 he appears as a philosopher pure and simple, having renounced the Church.

His

Works. The philosophical works of Lamennais correspond with two distinct attitudes of thought. “Essai sur l'Indifférence en Matière de Religion" and "De la Religion considérée dans ses Rapports avec l'Ordre Politique et Civil" (1825-1826) are works in which philosophy appears as subservient to the Church. His "Esquisse d'une Philosophie" (1837-1841) is a philosophical work in the proper sense of the term.

The

Philosophy: Earlier Standpoint. — All individual philosophical systems necessarily end in scepticism. individual reason alone is impotent to search out the universal truth. This is in the possession of the universal reason of humanity, the only true expression of which is contained in the faith of the Roman Catholic Church, and the only organ of which is the pope, etc.

Later Standpoint. - Underlying all our thoughts and affirmations is the idea of being as such, - God. God is the positive in all existence; outside him there is nothing.

1 Noack.

God alienates himself in part from himself,

thus creat

ing the world of finite existences, which is consubstantial with, though in a manner distinct from, him. God, though one, contains in himself a triplicity of principles. In his intelligence there are: (1) the "sole thought of himself; (2) representative ideas of all particular beings; (3) something which determines the actual distinction of particular ideas." God has the three attributes of power, intelligence, and love, and in all that exists, this triplicity in different degrees recurs. The lowest degree of manifestation of God's attributes is found in matter as such. Impenetrability in matter corresponds to force, or power, in God, figure to intelligence in him, and cohesion to love. The material elements — ether, light, heat

are, respect

ively, inferior forms of God's three attributes, — power, intelligence, love. The divine essence communicates itself in all its purity to the rational free soul. Creation is the progressive manifestation of all that which is in God, and in the same order in which it is in God. The world is the best possible. All that could be, necessarily was; there was no room for choice. Lamennais aims to avoid pantheism by insisting on the necessary imperfection of the world as a created existence (since God could not create another God), and therefore it is separateness in relation to God.

1

§ III.

Auguste Comte 1 (1798–1857). Comte was born at Montpellier. He attended school in Montpellier and studied at the École Polytechnique in Paris, from which he was ejected because of unwillingness to submit to what was, perhaps, an arbitrary exercise of authority. For some years. he lived in Paris, obtaining a not very liberal livelihood by

1 See Abridged Translation of Comte's "Philosophie Positive," by Harriet Martineau; "A General View of Positivism" (translated by J. H. Bridges); "Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte," by J. S. Mill; "Encyclopædia Britannica;" Caird's "Comte's Social Philosophy."

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