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Dundee is the grand seat of the Scotch linen manufacture; and its progress there during the last few years has been so extraordinary, that the following details in respect to it may not be unacceptable.

The manufacture appears to have been introduced into Dundee some time towards the beginning of last century; but, for a lengthened period, its progress was comparatively slow. In 1745, only 74 tons of flax were imported, without any hemp; the shipments of linen cloth during the same year being estimated at about 1,000,000 yards, no mention being made either of sail-cloth or bagging. In 1791, the imports of flax amounted to 2,444 tons, and those of hemp to 299 tons; the exports that year being 7,842,000 yards linen, 280,000 yards sail-cloth, and 65,000 do. bagging. From this period the trade began to extend itself gradually, though not rapidly. Previously to the peace of 1815, no great quantity of machinery was employed in spinning; but about this period, in consequence, partly and principally of the improvement of machinery, and its extensive introduction into the manufacture, and partly of the greater regularity with which supplies of the raw material were obtained from the Northern powers, the trade began rapidly to increase. Its progress has, indeed, been quite astonishing; the imports of flax having increased from about 3,000 tons in 1814, to 15,000 tons in 1830! The exports of manufactured goods have increased in a corresponding proportion. During the year ended the 31st of May, 1831, there were imported into Dundee 15,010 tons of flax, and 3,082 do. hemp; and there were shipped off 366,817 pieces, being about 50,000,000 yards, of linen; 85,522 pieces, or about 3,500,000 yards, of sail-cloth; and about 4,000,000 yards of bagging-in all, about 57,500,000 yards !—(See an excellent article on this subject in the Dundee Chronicle, 16th of October, 1832.) In the year ending the 31st of May, 1833, the imports of flax amounted to 18,777 tons, besides 3,380 tons of hemp. The shipments of linen, sail-cloth, &c. have increased in a corresponding ratio; and were valued, in the year now mentioned, at about 1,600,000l. !

It appears, therefore, that the shipments of linen from this single port are quite as great as those from all Ireland; and while the manufacture has been very slowly progressive in the latter, it has increased at Dundee even more rapidly than the cotton manufacture has increased at Manchester. It is not easy to give any satisfactory explanation of this wonderful progress. Something must be ascribed to the convenient situation of the port for obtaining supplies of the raw material; and more, perhaps, to the manufacture having been long established in the towns and villages of Strathmore, the Carse of Gowrie, and the northern parts of Fife, of which Dundee is the emporium. But these circumstances do not seem adequate to explain the superiority to which she has recently attained in this department; and, however unphilosophical it may seem, we do not really know that we can ascribe it to any thing else than a concurrence of fortunate accidents. Nothing, in fact, is so difficult to explain as the superiority to which certain towns frequently attain in particular departments of industry, without apparently possessing any peculiar facilities for carrying them on. But from whatever causes their pre-eminence may arise in the first instance, it is very difficult, when once they have attained it, for others to come into competition with them. They have, on their side, established connections, workmen of superior skill and dexterity in manipulation, improved machinery, &c. Recently, indeed, the advantages in favour of old establishments have been, to a considerable extent, neutralised by the prevalence of combinations amongst their workmen; but it is to be hoped that means may speedily be devised for obviating this formidable evil.

Value of the Manufacture. Number of Persons employed. There are no means by

which to form an accurate estimate of the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. Colquhoun estimated it at 15,000,000l.; but there cannot be the shadow of a doubt that this is an absurd exaggeration. In the former edition of this work we expressed our conviction that it could not be valued at more than 10,000,000l.; but further investigation has satisfied us that even this estimate is very decidedly beyond the mark, and that the entire produce of the manufacture in the United Kingdom does not exceed 7,500,000l. Some very intelligent individuals, largely engaged in the trade, do not estimate it at so much; and we feel fully confident that this sum, if not much beyond, is at all events not within the mark. Now, if we set aside a third part of this sum for the value of the raw material, and 25 per cent. for profits, wages of superintendence, wear and tear of capital, coal, &c., we shall have 3,125,000l. to be divided as wages among those employed in the manufacture. And supposing each individual to earn, at an average, 181. a year, the total number employed would be about 172,000. It may be thought, perhaps, that 187. is too low an estimate for wages; and such, no doubt, would be the case, were not Ireland taken into the average. But as a great many persons are there employed in the manufacture at very low wages, we believe that 187. is not very far from the mean rate.†

* Sir F. M. Eden estimated the entire value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain, in 1800, at 2,000,0007.-(Treatise on Insurance, p. 76.)

A vast number of persons in Ireland are only partly employed m the manufacture; but the above estimate supposes that the 172,000 individuals are wholly employed in it,

Linen Trade of the United Kingdom. The following official statements show, in detail, the state of the import and export trade of the country in this department, in 1830, with the results for the subsequent years.

Account of the Quantities of Hemp and Flax, dressed and undressed, Hemp Tow, Flax Tow, and Linen Yarns, imported into Great Britain and Ireland, from Foreign Parts, in the Year ended the 5th of January, 1831; distinguishing the Ports of Importation, and the Countries whence imported, together with the Real and Official Values thereof. -(Parl. Paper, No. 534. Sess. 1832, &c.)

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Account of the Quantity of Foreign Linens retained for Home Consumption in Great Britain, in the Year

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ended 5th of January, 1851.

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declared value 11,1872. 17. 1d. Sails

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Account exhibiting the Quantity of British and Irish Linen Cloth of all Sorts, separately exported from England, Scotland, and Ireland, during 1830; specifying the Quantities sent from each to the different Foreign Countries importing the same, with their Real or Declared Values, and the Bounty paid on Exportation.

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Amount of bounty paid thereon - 69,878 1 523,146 7 11 53,503 18 8952 14 35,628 19 2

No British linen sent from Ireland.

55,613,608

L. 8. d. 153,110 1 54

+ The declared value of the linens exported in 1831 was 2,461,7047.

Consumption of Foreign Linens.-It appears from the second of the foregoing accounts, that the consumption of foreign linens in this country is quite inconsiderable; the real or declared value of those entered for home consumption, in 1830, could hardly amount to 20,000l.

Regulations as to the Linen Manufacture. — Any person, native or foreigner, may, without paying any thing, set up in any place, privileged or not, corporate or not, any branch of the linen manufacture; and foreigners practising the same shall, on taking the oath of allegiance, &c., be entitled to all the privileges of natural born subjects. (15 Cha. 2. c. 15.)

Persons affixing stamps to foreign linens in imitation of the stamps affixed to those of Scotland or Ireland, shall forfeit 54. for each offence; and persons exposing to sale or packing up any foreign linens as the manufacture of Great Britain or Ireland, shall forfeit the same, and 51. for each piece of linen to exposed to sale or packed up.-(17 Geo. 2. c. 30.)

Any person stealing to the value of 107. any linen, woollen, silk, or cotton goods, whilst exposed during any stage of the manufacture in any building, field, or other place, shall, upon conviction, be liable at the discretion of the court to be transported beyond seas for life, or for any term not less than 7 years, or to be imprisoned for any term not exceeding 4 years, and, if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or pri vately whipped, as the court shall think fit. -(7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. 14.)

LIQUORICE (Ger. Sussholz; Fr. Réglisse, Racine douce; It. Regolizia, Logorizia, Liquirizia; Sp. Regaliz Orozuz), a perennial plant (Glycirrhiza glabra), a native of the south of Europe, but cultivated to some extent in England, particularly at Mitcham in Surrey. Its root, which is its only valuable part, is long, slender, fibrous, of a yellow colour, and when fresh very juicy. The liquorice grown in England is fit for use at the end of 3 years; the roots, when taken up, are either immediately sold to the brewers druggists, or to common druggists, by whom they are applied to different purposes, or they are packed in sand, like carrots or potatoes, till wanted.

LIQUORICE JUICE (Succus Liquoritia), popularly black sugar, the inspissated juice of the roots just mentioned. Very little of this extract is prepared in Britain, by far the larger part of our supply being imported from Spain and Sicily. The juice obtained by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to the press, is slowly boiled till it becomes of a proper consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness, which are usually covered with bay leaves. This is the state in which we import it. Most part of it is afterwards redissolved, purified, and cast into small cylindrical rolls of about the thickness of a goose quill, when it is called refined liquorice. It is then of a glossy black colour, brittle, having a sweet mucilaginous taste. It is used in the materia medica, particularly in coughs, colds, &c.—( Thomson's Chemistry; Thomsɔn's Dispensatory.)

The imports in 1831 and 1832 amounted, at an average, to 7,321 cwt. a year. It is loaded with the oppressive duty of Sl. 15s. a cwt., producing rather more than 22,000l. a year of revenue.

LISBON, the capital of Portugal, situated on the north bank of the river Tagus, the observatory of the fort being in lat. 38° 42′ 24" N., lon. 9° 5' 50" W. Population about 200,000, but formerly greater.

Port. The harbour or rather road of Lisbon is one of the finest in the world, and the quays are at once convenient and beautiful. Fort St. Julian marks the northern entrance of the Tagus. It is built on a steep projecting rock. There is a light-house in the centre, 120 feet above the level of the sea At the mouth of the Tagus are two large banks, called the North and South Cachops. There are two channels for entering the river; the north or little, and the south or great channel, exhibited in the subjoined plan. On the middle of the South Cachop, about 13 mile from Fort St. Julian, is the Bugio fort and light-house, the latter being 66 feet in height. The least depth of water in the north channel on the bar is 4 fathoms, and in the south 6. The only danger in entering the port arises from the strength of the tide; the ebb running down at the rate of 7 miles an hour; and after heavy rains, when there is a great deal of fresh water in the river, the difficulty of entering is considerably augmented. When, at such periods, there is a strong wind from the sea, there is a complete break all over the bar; vessels moor up and down the river with open hawse to the southward. In some parts they may come within 200 yards of the shore, being guided by the depth of water, which, from nearly 20 fathoms in mid-channel, shoals gradually to the edge.

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References to Plan. A, Fort St. Julian and light-house. B, Bugio fort and light-house. C, Barcarena look-out house. D, Belem Castle. E, Point Cassilhas. F G, Bugio fort and Sugar Loaf Hill in one, mark the north channel.

Trade, &c.-Lisbon is one of the best situated commercial cities of Europe. But, notwithstanding this circumstance, the excellence of the port, and the command of the navigation of the Tagus, her commerce is comparatively trifling. The despotism, intolerance, and imbecility of the government have weighed down all the energies of the nation. The law and the police being alike bad, there is no adequate security. Assassination is very frequent. Industry of all sorts is, in consequence, paralysed; and since the emancipation of Brazil, commerce has rapidly declined. Formerly Lisbon had about 400 ships, of from 300 to 600 tons burden, employed in the trade with South America. But at present there are not above 50 ships belonging to the port engaged in foreign trade; and, of these, the average burden does not exceed 150 tons! The produce of Portugal sent to foreign countries, is almost entirely conveyed to its destination in foreign ships. The trade between Lisbon and Cork is, we believe, the only exception to this; it being principally carried on in Portuguese vessels, which take salt from St. Ubes, and bring back butter in return. About 200 small craft belong to the city, which are exclusively employed in the coasting trade.

There are neither price currents, shipping lists, nor official returns of any kind, published in Lisbon. The principal exports are lemons and oranges-which, however, are very inferior to those of Spain; wine, particularly Lisbon and Calcavella; wool, oil, tanned hides, woollen caps, vinegar, salt, cork, &e. Besides colonial produce, the principal imports consist of cotton, woollen, and linen goods; hardware, earthenware, dried fish, butter, corn, cheese, timber and deals, hemp, &c. The declared or real value of all articles exported from Great Britain to Portugal in 1831 amounted to 975,9912., of which cotton stuffs and yarn made nearly a half; but of these exports a large proportion went to Oporto.

Money.Accounts are kept in rees, 1,000 of which 1 milree In the notation of accounts the milrees are separated from the rees by a crossed cypher (), and the milrees from the millions by a colon: thus, Rs. 2:700 500 2,700 milrees and 500 rees.

The crusado of exchange, or old crusado, = 400 rees; the new crusado = 480 rees; the testoon = 100 rees; and the vinten or vintem = 20 rees.

The gold piece of 6,400 rees = 35s. 11d. sterling; the gold crusado = 2s. 3d.; and the milree, valued in gold, = 671d. sterling. It appears, however, from assays made at the London mint, in 1812, on modern silver crusados, that the average value of the milree in silver may be estimated at 60d. or 5s. sterling.

Weights and Measures. The commercial weights are, 8 ounces = 1 marc; 2 marcs = 1 pound or arratel; 22 pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 100 lbs. or arratels of Portugal = 101·19 lbs. avoirdupois = 45 895 kilog. = 94761 lbs. of Hamburgh = 92'918 lbs. of Amsterdam.

The principal measure for corn, salt, &c. is the moyo, divided into 15 fanegas, 50 alquiéres, 240 quartos, 480 selemis, &c. The moyo = 23 03 Winchester bushels.

The principal liquid measure is the almude, divided into 2 potes, 12 canadas, or 48 quartellos; 18 almudes = 1 baril; 26 almudes = 1 pipe; 52 almudes = 1 tonelada. The almude 4:37 English wine gallons; and the tonelada = 2274 ditto.

A pipe of Lisbon is estimated by the Custom-house (British) at 140 gallons; and this pipe is supposed to be 31 almudes. A pipe of port is 168 gallons, divided into 21 almudes of Oporto.

Of measures of length, 2 pes = 3 palmos = 1 covado, or cubit; 13 covados = 1 vara; 2 varas = 1 brança. The pe or foot = 12-944 English inches; 100 feet of Portugal 107-8 English feet; the vara = 432 English inches.

For freight a last is reckoned at 4 pipes of oil or wine, 4 chests of sugar, 4,000 lbs. of tobacco, 3,600 lbs. of shumac.

But from one place in Portugal to another, a tonelada is reckoned at 52 almudes of liquids, or 54 almudes of dry goods.

Coffee is sold per arroba; cotton, indigo, and pepper, per lb.; oil, per almude; wine, per pipe; corn, per alquiére; salt, per moyo.

Grain, seed, fish, wool, and timber, are sold on board.

Weights and long measures are the same throughout Portugal; but there is a great discrepancy in the measures of capacity. The almude and alquiére, at the principal places, are in English measures as follows:

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Bank of Lisbon. This establishment was founded in 1822. Its capital consisted, in 1833, of about 691,1002. sterling, divided into 6,911 shares of about 100%. each. The shareholders are not liable beyond the amount of their shares. The bank discounts bills not having more than 3 months to run, at 5 per Its dividends, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1831, were about 6 per cent. It enjoys the singular but valuable privilege of having its claims on all estates paid off in full, provided the estate amounts to so much; other creditors being obliged to content themselves with a division of the residue, if there be any.

cent.

Dutics. These are moderate. British goods pay a duty of 15 per cent. on a valuation fixed in 1782; but this on some articles is a good deal more, and on others less. The importation of tobacco, snuff, and soap is prohibited, except for the use of the contractors to whom the manufacture and sale of these articles is assigned. All exported articles pay a duty (consulado) of 4 per cent. ad valorem. The duties collected at the different Custom-houses in Lisbon, for of these there are no fewer than seven, - amounted, in 1831, to about 215,000. Arrivals.

1829.

1830.

1831.

Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons.
322 34,203 294
24,749
30,334 230
320
131
242
560
692
308

British
Portuguese
Foreign
There is no return of the tonnage of the Portuguese and
foreign ships.

Port Regulations. All vessels entering the Tagus are obliged to come to anchor off Belem Castle, where there is an office at which they must be entered, their cargoes declared, from whence they come, and whether the cargo be intended to be landed in Lisbon or not; if not, the master applies for franquia," that is, for leave to remain 8 days in the port for the purpose of disposing of the cargo or of departing with it. Two Custom-house officers are then sent on board, and if the cargo is to be discharged at Lisbon, the vessel proceeds to the Custom-house, when the master makes entry, delivering the manifest and bills of lading attached to the certificate of the Portuguese consul, at the port of lading, in order to identify the cargo. The officers put on board at Belem are then relieved by 2 others, who remain until the vessel be discharged and visited by the Custom-house searcher. The port dues have to be paid in different offices; but the vessel is not subject to any other charges.

All goods sent on board for exportation must be accom. panied by a permit from the Custom-house. When the clearances are obtained, the papers are presented by the master, or the ship's agent, to the authorities at Belem, who deliver the signal the vessel is to hoist when going to sea.

There is no regular warehousing and bonding system at Lisbon. All imported dry goods are allowed to remain in the Custom-house stores 2 years, and liquids 6 months, without being charged warehouse rent, provided they are intended for consumption, and pay the duties accordingly. But if, after that period, they are taken out to be exported, they are charged 2 per cent. duty.

Port Charges on a foreign ship of 300 tons entering the port of Lisbon, with a general or mixed cargo, and clearing out with the same :

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Vessels coming with a cargo, or in ballast, and departing in ballast, pay 200 rees per ton lights, or 4 times as much as if they sailed with cargoes. Vessels coming with a cargo, and sailing with the same cargo, pay no tonnage duty.

Commission. The ordinary rates of commission are, on the sale of goods, 24 per cent.; del credere, 24 per cent.; on the value of goods landed from a vessel putting in to effect repairs, 1 per cent.; on ships' disbursements, 5 per cent. Insurances are effected to a trifling amount. There is 1 national company for effecting insurances; but it enjoys little credit.

Tares are not regulated by any certain rule. Those allowed are generally those invoiced or marked on the package. (See Annuaire du Commerce Maritime, p. 290.; Kelly's Cambist; Consul's Answers to Circular Queries, &c.)

LITERARY PROPERTY. See Books.

LITHARGE (Ger. Glötte, Glätte; Du. Gelit; Fr. Litharge; It. Litargirio; Sp. Almartaga, Litarjirio; Rus. Glet; Lat. Lithargyrium), an oxide of lead in an imperfect state of vitrification. Most of the lead met with in commerce contains silver, from a few grains to 20 ounces or more in the fodder: when the quantity is sufficient to pay the expense of separation, it is refined; that is, the metal is exposed to a high heat, passing at the same time a current of air over the surface: the lead is thus oxidised and converted into litharge, while the silver, remaining unchanged, is collected at the end of the process. -(Thomson's Chemistry, &c.) Litharge is used for various purposes in the arts, by potters, glass makers, painters, &c.

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