ta and Barbara Marchisio. Carafa was naturalized in 1834, and was the successor of Lesueur as Member of the Institute. He was also named Professor of Composition at the Conservatoire. His operas had the defect of not being original, but he has left some charming compositions, and he wrote well for the voice. CARTWRIGHT, PETER, an eccentric but useful Methodist preacher and author, born in Amherst County, Va., September 1, 1785; died at his home, near Pleasant Plains, Sangamon County, Ill., September 25, 1872. His father was a soldier in the Revolutionary War, and about 1790 removed with his family to Logan County, Ky. In his autobiography he thus describes the condition of affairs in the rude district where his boyhood was passed: "When my father settled in Logan County, there was not a newspaper printed south of Green River, no mills short of forty miles, and no schools worth the name. Sunday was a day set apart for hunting, fishing, horse-racing, card-playing, balls, dances, and all kinds of jollity and mirth. We killed our meat out of the woods, wild, and beat our meal and hominy with a pestle and mortar. We stretched a deer-skin over a hoop, burned holes in it with the prongs of a fork, sifted our meal, baked our bread, ate it, and it was first-rate eating too. We raised, or gathered out of the woods, our own tea. We had sage, bohea, crossvine, spice, and sassafras teas, in abundance. As for coffee, I am not sure that I ever smelled it for ten years. We made our sugar out of the water of the maple-tree, and our molasses too. These were great luxuries in those days. We raised our own cotton and flax. We waterrotted our flax, broke it by hand, scutched it; picked the seed out of the cotton with our fingers; our mothers and sisters carded, spun, and wove it into cloth, and they cut and made our garments, bedclothes, etc. And when we got on a new suit thus manufactured, and sallied out into company, we thought ourselves so big as anybody." The Methodist preachers had just begun to make "circuits" in that section, and Rev. John Lurton obtained permission to hold public services in Mr. Cartwright's cabin whenever he touched there on his rounds. After a few years a conference was formed, known as the Western Conference, the seventh then in the United States. In 1801 a camp-meeting was held at Cane Ridge, at which nearly two thousand persons were converted. Peter was then a wild, wayward boy of sixteen, fond of horse-racing, card-playing, and dancing. He was soon convicted of his sinfulness, but resisted the good influences which surrounded him for some time, plunging more recklessly than ever into his wild and wicked life, until, after a night's dance and debauch at a wedding some miles from his father's house, he felt deeply convicted and began to pray. He sold a race-horse he had, burned his cards, and gave up gambling, to which he was greatly addicted, and, after

three months' earnest seeking, he, too, was converted. He immediately started out to preach as a "local," but was soon (in 1803) received into the regular ministry, and ordained an elder in 1806 by Bishop Asbury. He had done effective work about sixty-seven years. In 1823 Mr. Cartwright removed from the Cumberland district and travelled through Illinois in quest of a home, settling the year following in Sangamon County, at that time peopled only by a few hardy and enterprising pioneers. After a few years he was elected to the Legislature, wherein his readiness at reply and resolute spirit made him the victor in many contentions into which he was drawn. He soon retired from politics and ever afterward devoted himself exclusively to the duties of his ministry. He attended annual conferences with almost unfailing regularity for a series of years, and was always a conspicuous member. Year after year he attended camp-meetings, finding his greatest happiness in the good fruits which followed his preaching. He was a delegate to numerous general conferences, and retained his interest in the spread of religion to the last. He was, from a very early period, a zealous opponent of slavery, and was rejoiced when the Methodist Episcopal Church was rid of all complicity with it by the division in 1844. He was for more than fifty years presiding elder in the Church, which he saw rise, from 72,874 members when he joined it, to nearly one million and three quarters when he left it to receive his reward. He was a powerful preacher and a very laborious pastor. He was quaint and eccentric in his habits, and in his style in the pulpit and out, and was possessed of a fund of humor and humorous experiences which always gained favor and popularity wherever he went. He was for many years contemporary with Bishop Asbury. His "Autobiography," published in 1856, is, we believe, his only published work, except some pamphlets long since out of print.

CATLIN, GEORGE, an American artist and author, born in Wilkesbarre, Luzerne County, Pa., 1796; died in Jersey City, N. J., December 22, 1872. After he had received a good academical education, his father sent him to Reeves's Law School, in Litchfield, Conn. There young Catlin remained for two years, bending all his energies to the mastery of law. Then he proceeded to Philadelphia, where he practised in his profession two years; but, notwithstanding his legal studies, he had for several years devoted his leisure moments to the art of painting, for which he had always entertained a passionate admiration, long before he left his father's roof. Art was his idolized profession. So strong did his passion for art become that he finally abandoned the law, and came to New York, where he was soon engaged in the painting of portraits and miniatures. In 1829, being then thirty-three years old, Mr. Catlin had his attention called to the fact that the pure American race was disap

pearing before the march of civilization. He, therefore, resolved, if possible, to rescue from oblivion the types and customs of the unfortunate Indians. From that moment dated the commencement of his life-study, to which he clung through the remaining years of his existence, in good or evil fortune. In 1831 Mr. Catlin, though discouraged by his friends and by the Government, accompanied Governor Clark, of St. Louis, then Superintendent of Indian Affairs, in a Western tour among the Winnebagoes and Menomonees, the Shawnees, Sacs, and Foxes, and with these interviews began the series of his Indian paintings. After the close of the "Black Hawk War," he visited Black Hawk and five of his warriors, prisoners, at Jefferson Barracks, where he painted their portraits. In the following year he descended the Missouri River, from the mouth of the Yellowstone to St. Louis, in a canoe, with two men, a distance of two thousand miles, steering it the whole way with his own paddle; and in that campaign visited and painted the Mandans, Crows, Blackfeet, K'nisteneux, Assiniboins, Minataries, Riccarrees, Sioux, Puncas, and Iowas. During these voyages he was the correspondent of the New-York Spectator. These letters and others, written during subsequent trips to the West, were collected and published in 1841, the volume being entitled "Catlin's Life among the North American Indians." The artist's anxiety to procure faithful and complete portraits of all the Indian celebrities, and of representatives of every well-known or obscure tribe, led him into many dangers, and he travelled thousands of miles in a bark canoe and on horseback. He visited nearly every State in the Union, and was, doubtless, the best-informed man in the world on Indian life and customs. He married and went to Europe in 1840, taking with him his collection of paintings, which he exhibited in London for three years. He afterward went to Paris, where his wife suddenly died, leaving three daughters who are yet living, while the French Revolution turned him out "neck and heels," as he expressed it in his book. In 1852 he sailed to Venezuela, and for several years was employed in exploring the innermost parts of South America, interviewing scores of tribes of wild Indians. "Last Rambles in North and South America," from his pen, is a graphic description of his life in the wildernesses of those countries. He also wrote a little book entitled "Lifted and Subsided Rocks of America," based on his observations made during his travels. A very valuable work, "North American Folio," containing twenty-five plates of hunting-scenes, was published by him in London. He also prepared, some years since, a little volume entitled "Keep your Mouth Shut; or, The Breath of Life." His books possess very considerable merit, and his paintings, though, perhaps, not ranking among the highest specimens of the limner's art, are yet of great value

as faithful portraits of a fast-departing race, and views of landscapes, which, under the progress of civilization, are already undergoing a rapid transformation. They will be of incalculable worth by-and-by in an historical point of view. His works descriptive of Indian life, and his adventures among the tribes both of North and South America, are also valuable, both for their graphic delineations of the Indian character and their unswerving fidelity to real life. In the autumn of 1871, his collection, comprising five hundred portraits and landscapes, was exhibited in New York city, and a movement has been set on foot by the artist's friend, Gen. J. G. Wilson, for its purchase and preservation in the Central Park.

CENTRAL AMERICA (CENTRO-AMÉRICA) comprises five independent republics: Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. In the city of La Union, Republic of San Salvador, Central America, on February 17, 1872, the ministers plenipotentiary of four of the Central-American States, Guatemala, Costa Rica, Honduras, and San Salvador, united in conference, with a view to establish the bases of the union of the CentralAmerican States, conformably to the desires of their respective governments; to protect in an effectual manner the interests of Central America, and of each one of the high contracting parties; preserve and maintain peace between them, and within each of the republics, as the best means of insuring prosperity at home and respect abroad; to extend and sustain republican principles, guarantee the autonomy of Central America, and the integrity of its territory against the aggressions and pretensions of all foreign powers, and to defend the sovereignty of each one of the States, and, finally, to promote every branch of progress, moral, intellectual, and material. The representatives, having duly conferred together upon the various subjects of their important mission, agreed upon certain stipulations, the chief of which were as follows:

ARTICLE I. The Central-American Republics engage to preserve intact the autonomy and integrity of the Central-American territory, so that none of the Governments, for any motive or pretext, shall which might affect the sovereignty or diminish the make any sale, cession, or alienation whatever, respective territory; nor admit annexation to, or the protectorate of, any government or foreign power. In this resolution are not comprehended voluntary territorial arrangements by whom it may concern, provided always that these be with Spanish-American States; but, should any of the republics be violently deprived of her rights, it shall be the duty of the other Central-American States to assist in an efficacious manner toward revindication, making common cause with the State aggrieved, ART. II. No other form of government than the republican shall ever be established or permitted in Central America.

ART. III. The preservation of peace in the CentralAmerican Republics is one of the strictest duties of disputes which may arise between them, no matter their respective governments and peoples, and all what may be the motives thereof, shall be settled by the mediation of the other Governments that had no

part in the question. In case of non-agreement, the matter will be submitted to the arbitral judgment of the Central-American authority about to be establlshed, or to a tribunal of arbiters composed of the representatives of the neutral Central-American Governments. The infringement of this principle shall be considered as a crime of treason against the Central-American Union.

ART. IV. Rebellion in Central America, against the lawfully-constituted authorities, is a treasonable crime against the Central-American Union.

ART. V. The duration of the presidential term shall be uniform in all the Central American Republies, without immediate reelection, or any extension whatsoever. All infractions of this principle will be violations of the national pact.

ART. VI. No one can be a slave within CentralAmerican territory. Should a Central-American come to possess slaves in a foreign country, he thereby loses his nationality and the protection of the laws of Central America.

ART. VII. Central America guarantees to all its inhabitants the imprescriptible rights of public meetings, associations, petitions, liberty of printing, of writing, of instruction, and of industry, conformably to the respective laws of each republic.

ART. VIII. Every citizen of any of the Republics of Central America may acquire the rights of citizenship in all the others by expressing his wish to do so before any government authority; and such petition shall not necessarily deprive him of his primitive citizenship.

ART. IX. The right of asylum is recognized for immigrants or political exiles of all nationalities, in all the Central-American Republics; with some restrictions, however, tending to protect the interests of the Government of the exile's country. The extradition of political offenders is prohibited.

ART. X. Literary, academical, and military titles, conferred in one of the Central-American Republics, shall be recognized in the others.

ART. XI. The civil and criminal legislation and procedure shall in future be the same in all Central America, save the modifications required in each particular State.

ART. XII. Confiscation is abolished in Central America.

ART. XIII. Property is inalienable; and entails caunot hereafter be established in the Union.

ART. XIV. Weights and measures shall be the same in all Central America, as well as the weight and alloy of coin, which shall follow the decimal system for gold coins and for those of silver above the value of twenty-five cents.

ART. XV. The plan of official primary instruction shall be uniform in all Central America, being at the same time gratuitous, compulsory, and conformable to republican and evangelical principles.

ART. XVIII. All questions of boundaries, existing or that may arise in the future, between the Republies of Central America, shall be judged and decided upon definitively by the national authority or by the collective tribunal of the three States, if the parties interested cannot arrange amicably between themselves.

ART. XIX. As material ties to establish, foster, and develop the union of Central America, the following are declared to be national undertakings and will be carried out, viz.:

1. The establishment of a line of telegraphs, which, starting from the port of Colon, in Colombia, cross the territory of Central America, to the frontier of Mexico. That part of the telegraph to be formed by a submarine cable between Colon and Port Limon, in Costa Rica, shall be paid or subventioned in equal parts by the five Central-American Republics.

2. The construction of a national highway to open communication between all the capitals of the Central-American Republics, the quality and condi

tion of said road being optional with each State within its respective territory. The cost of construction and repairs of this national road shall be paid by each one of these States in proportion to the territory traversed by said road.

3. The establishment of mail-steamers on the coast of the Pacific, which, leaving Punta Arenas, or any other port in Costa Rica nearer to Colombia, shall arrive at Port Champerico or any other in Guatemala nearer to the coast of Mexico, touching at the intermediate ports of the Central-American coast. The expenses of the establishment and management of the aforesaid line of steamers shall be borne in equal parts by all the Republics of Central America, the use and management thereof being dependent solely on the Central-American national authority.

4. The excavation of an interoceanic canal by way of the river known as the San Juan of Nicaragua, which will be proposed by the Central-American authority or by representation in common of all the States, shall be paid for by subscription or by shares among all the Latino-American Governments, but, should these be unable to furnish the necessary funds, subscription or share lists shall be opened to all the other Governments of the world, for the purpose of forming a universal transit, but whose neutrality and keeping shall be exclusively in the hands of the Central-American Governments. It is declared from now henceforth that the duties of transit shall be agreed on by a Congress of Plenipotentiaries of all the nations contributing, so that a tariff shall be established, making a difference between and in favor of the subjects of those nations that have contributed to the undertaking, and those that have not. This association once formed, the contributing Governments shall acquire the right, as has been said, of dictating regulations for the preservation and administration of the canal, and the distribution of the net profits. Central America will exercise over said canal jurisdiction and political sovereignty, guaranteeing to all Governments the neutrality and universality of the route.

ART. XX. In consequence of what has been agreed on in the preceding articles, the Governments signing this treaty engage to convoke a National Central-American Congress to frame laws in conformity with the bases and stipulations laid down, developing and arranging them, and providing for the creation and maintenance of the national authority which shall give them force. This Congress will consist of three principal representatives and an equal number of substitutes for each State.

ART. XXI. This Central-American Congress shall have no power to pass any law which would augment or diminish the obligations which the present pact imposes on each one of the republics taking part therein; but may convoke another National Congress, to be held after the expiration of four years at least, or eight years at most, for the purpose of altering the bases of union according to the common wants and conveniences which experience may have shown to be necessary.

ART. XXII. Besides the functions above enumerated, the Congress will issue laws for the interior, indicate the place of residence of the national authority to be established, decree the budget for the nation as well as its dependencies, agree on the means to carry out the enterprises which are proposed by Central America, authorizing, if needed, the national authority to negotiate, either at home or abroad, a Central-American loan, sufficient to realize them; and, finally, to determine the amount of military force necessary for the security and honor of the National authority and the preservation of order in the population of its residence, which force shall not, however, exceed one hundred men.

ART. XXIII. All the expenses declared in the budget, common to the Central-American nationality spoken of in this treaty, shall be paid by all the Governments of Central America in equal parts; as also

the cost of the guard of honor of the national authority.

ART. XXIV. The Central-American Congress will meet in the city of La Union, of Salvador, three months after the exchange of credentials of this pact, and a minority of its members united may dictate the means for obtaining the presence of the others, but the Congress cannot be held with less than four-fifths of its members present. The travelling and daily expenses of the latter shall be determined and paid by their respective Governments. ART. XXV. In the place appointed for the dence of the national authorities about to be established, there shall not exist any other armed force than that subject to its orders; the republic in whose territory it is located engaging itself to have no military jurisdiction over said territory.

ART. XXVI. The Central-American Governments oblige themselves to carry out the stipulations of the present convention in those points which are, or may be, deemed essential for the preservation of peace in Central America.

if these

ART. XXVII. Even before the exchange of ratification of credentials, all the Governments oblige themselves to preserve the peace and avoid disputes by employing conciliatory measures; but, should not be sufficient, each one of said Governments has full liberty, while such is in prosecution, to act as it thinks proper without forfeiting the right to carry out, when the time comes, the union stipulated in the agreement.

ART. XXVIII. All and each of the Central-American Republics oblige themselves to lay down, sustain, and fulfil all and each of the principles and stipulations contained in the present pact; any breach of it shall be made the subject of the arbitral and collective judgment of the Governments or of the national authority, which obliges itself to fulfil and cause to be fulfilled.

ART. XXIX. The Governments of the Republics of Central America, after the exchange of the ratifications of this treaty, are under obligation to make the latter known to foreign Governments with whom they are or may be in relations.

ART. XXX. The exchange of ratifications of this treaty shall take place in the city of La Union, of Central America, within three months from the date of the signing thereof, or before if possible.

ADDITIONAL ARTICLES.

ART. I. Capital punishment for political crimes is abolished in Central America; and there shall be established as soon as possible, on one of the islands of the Central-American coast, a general penitentiary for the reception of such criminals as any one of the several Legislatures may send thither.

ART. II. The representative of the Government of the Republic of Nicaragua not having been present at this Congress, the minister plenipotentiary of Costa Rica will visit the city of Managua, and present to that Government the present pact for the purpose of obtaining the adhesion of that Government, in which case its effects will be equal over all Central America. In case she refuses, the stipulations contained in Article XIX., concerning the establishment of telegraph-lines, a national highway, and interoceanic canal, shall remain without effect.

In witness of the above stipulations, we, the aforesaid ministers plenipotentiary, sign five copies of the same tenor in the city of La Union, of Central America, under the date aforesaid, and in the fiftyfirst year of the Independence of Central America." R. RAMIREZ, J. J. SAMAYOA. MARTIN MERIDA.

MAXIMO ARAUJO,

(For further details, see COSTA RICA, GUATEMALA, HONDURAS, NICARAGUA, and SAN SALVADOR.)

CHEMISTRY. Ozone.-Prof. Croft, of the Toronto College, describes in the Canadian

M. Houzeau has experimented upon the proportion of ozone met with in pure country air, at a height of two metres above the ground. Taking the specific gravity of ozone at 1.658 (according to Soret), he ascertains that country air contains a maximum of 50.000 of its weight, oro of its bulk of ozone. As regards the origin of the ozone, he supposes it to be due to atmospheric electricity, constantly acting in the manner of a huge-sized condenser, between the soil and the clouds.

A simple apparatus for the production of ozone, with electricity of high tension, is described by Prof. A. W. Wright, in the American Journal of Science. It may be used in connection with any electro-machine. author says:

The

If this discharge is made to take place in an enclosed space through which air or oxygen can be driven, the ozonizing effect of the electricity is heightened, and can be utilized. The apparatus which I have employed, and which has afforded very satisfactory results, consists of a straight glass tube about 20 centimetres long, and having an internal diameter of 2.5 centimetres, the two ends being stopped with corks covered on the inner side with a thin coating of cement to protect them from the action of the ozone. Through the axis of each cork is inserted a glass tube of about 5 mm, calibre and 7 centimetres in length, having a branch tube inserted perpendicularly at the middle, and long enough to permit a rubber tube to be slipped upon it. The outer ends of the tubes themselves are closely

stopped with corks, through which are passed straight, thick copper wires, carrying suitable terminals at their inner ends, and bent into a ring at the others. They are fitted so as to make tight joints, but to allow of motion in order to vary the distance between their inner ends. One of these wires carries a small ball; the other terminates in a disk with rounded edge, set perpendicularly to the axis of the tube, and so large as to leave an annular space of some 2 or 3 millimetres breadth around it, The gas is admittted through one of the branchtubes and escapes from the other, after having passed through the whole length of the tube.

In using the apparatus, the wires must be connected with the poles of the machine in such a manner that the disk becomes the negative terminal, as this arrangement gives the greatest degree of expansion and diffuseness to the current. On turning the machine and adjusting the ball and disk to a proper distance, a nebulous aigrette surrounds the latter, the tube, while the part of the tube between the disk quite filling the interval between it and the wall of and ball is crowded with innumerable hazy streams

converging upon the positive pole, or simply causing the latter to be covered with a faint glow. A current of air or oxygen sent into the tube must pass through this, and ozone is very rapidly produced, and in great quantity. The condensers are of course not used with the machine when this apparatus is employed.

M. Widemann, a distiller, of Boston, claims to apply ozone for the removal of fusel-oil from whiskey-the volatile oil disappearing, after contact with ozone, in about twenty minutes. He writes to the Mechanics' Magazine that during the past year he was applying this process (undescribed) to 300 barrels of whiskey of 40 gallons each, daily. Adding water to Indiancorn whiskey, and subjecting it to the same process, he transforms it into vinegar, for pickling purposes, and at a factory in White Plains, N. Y., was making 90 barrels, of 40 gallons each, of this vinegar, per day.

Fluorescence. In a series of papers contributed to Poggendorff's Annalen, Hagenbach has given his extensive researches on this subject. The following are his main conclusions: All the rays of the spectrum are capable of exciting fluorescence. As to the extent of fluorescence in the spectrum, there are cases (as that of fluor-spar) in which it only begins in the violet after G; and others (as chlorophyl) in which it is spread over the entire spectrum. No fluorescent substance was met with which did not fluoresce in the neighborhood of the line H. It was proved that, where rays excite fluorescence, a corresponding absorption takes place; also that the rays called forth are never more refrangible than the exciting rays. These proportions were first laid down by Stokes. The question whether fluorescence in the solid state implies fluorescence in a state of solution, and vice versa, must be answered differently for different substances. Some substances fluoresce in the solid state, and not at all in solution; some greatly in the one state, little in the other; some show strong fluorescence in both states; some fluoresce little in the solid state, and greatly in solution; some fluoresce only in solution. Herr Hagenbach considers it probable that phosphorescence and fluorescence are phenomena differing in degree only, not in kind; though further data are necessary to the elucidation of this. He finds much similarity between the fluorescence spectra and many of the spectra of phosphorescent substances.

Atoms and Molecules.-Dr. S. D. Tillman discusses in the American Chemist the muchvexed question of the indivisibility of atoms, and makes out an apparently strong case for the atomic theory. Conceding, however, that atoms are indivisible and indestructible in the present order of things, he does not regard that fact as precluding the supposition that the atom may be a cluster of smaller particles held together by a powerful affinity, which, when counteracted, would leave them free to move within a given sphere, and he suggests that the relative position of such particles may

modify the combining capacity of the atom. Moreover, the normal position of such particles may determine not only the peculiarities of elemental spectra, but produce other effects not dependent on the amplitude of atomic oscillations, thus favoring the inference that the atom itself is a receptacle of force. Dr. Tillman thus summarizes the present evidence in support of the atomic theory:

1. Atomic Weights.-Elements combine in extremely minute parts, according to the law of definite and multiple proportions. The atomic weight of an element is either its equivalent weight, or a multiple of it; as such multiple cannot be divided by reactions, its weight must conform with the atomic number. Whatever changes of position the combining weight of an element may undergo in a series of molecular metamorphoses, that is to say, however many times it may be displaced and replaced in chemical combinations, it invariably retains its characteristic weight. This invariability of weight is an essential property of the atom.

2. Atomic Volume.-Gases unite in equal volumes or multiple volumes. If hydrogen be taken as unity, the density of each elementary gas is identical with the weight of its atom. The atomic volume, determined by dividing the atomic weight of a body by its specific gravity, has been the means of revealing many interesting relations among compounds of similar structure, and among many containing different components and of unlike structure.

3. Atomic Heat.-It has been shown by experiment that quantities of each element conforming with its atomic number have the same capacity for heat, excepting only carbon, boron, and silicon; these, it is believed, will yet be found to conform to same. the law that the specific heats of all atoms are the This law is regarded as a direct confirmation of atomic weight.

4. Molecules. According to the atomic theory, chemical forces are brought in equilibrium when atoms combine and form a molecule. Every gas and every vapor undecomposed has a density proportional to its molecular weight. All known molecular combinations and combining proportions are in accordance with the atomic doctrine. Decomposition by electrolysis affords some evidence that the constitu ent parts of a molecule which are simultaneously separated are proportionate to atomic weights.

5. Atomic Combining Capacity.-The modern doctrine of types and substitutions is solely based on the individuality of the atom, without which the whole fabric of typical structures must fall.

6. Isomerism.-The fact that bodies containing the same elements, and in precisely the same proportions, exhibit different properties, has been thus far accounted for, only on the supposition that atoms are differently arranged in each body. These differences in arrangement depend not only on the relative position of atoms, but also on the order as to time in which they combine; for two or more atoms having such precedence over others as to combine first may, by that means, form a radical of such permanence as to play the part of an atom. Aside from the quesferent bodies which can be formed from the same tion of radicals, we may ascertain the number of difnumber of different atoms by an application of the mathematical law of permutations.

7. Homogeneity.-The uniformity of structure and tion of elements furnishes the most palpable proof appearance of any element or chemical combinaof the identity in size and shape of those definite parts which we designate as molecules. This homogeneity is retained under different degrees of pressonly identical in structure, but that they approach ure, thus making it apparent that molecules are not and recede in precisely the same manner under the same conditions.