times of the Conqueror. The old lines, in many cases, have suffered but little change.

The commissioners who went through the land to collect the needed information for the work were often threatened by the people, who resented this "prying into their affairs," and looked upon the whole thing as simply another move preparatory to fresh taxation. But notwithstanding the bitter feelings with which the English viewed the preparation of the work, it was certainly a wise and necessary measure, and probably was prompted by the best of motives. "It was no tyranny, but the work of a great organization, the essential preliminary and accompaniment of a strong government."

The Curfew and the Forest Laws. Among the regulations introduced into England by the Conqueror was the peculiar one known as the Curfew-bell. This law required that, upon the ring. ing of the church bell at nightfall, every person should be at home, and that the fires should be buried1 and the lights extinguished.

Two reasons have been assigned for this ordinance: the one supposes that its object was to prevent the people's assembling by night to plan or execute treasonable undertakings; the other represents it simply as a safeguard against fire. The law was certainly in force in Normandy before the Conquest; indeed, according to Palgrave, it was a universal custom of police throughout the whole of medieval Europe.

Less justifiable and infinitely more odious to the people were the Forest Laws of the Normans. The Normans were excessively fond of the chase. William had for the sport a perfect passion. An old chronicler declares that "he loved the tall deer as if he were their father." Extensive tracts of country were turned into forests by the destruction of the farm-houses and villages. More than fifty hamlets, and numerous churches, are said to have been burnt in the creation of what was known as the New Forest.2

1 Hence the term Curfew, from couvrir, to cover, and feu, fire.

2 The term forest as applied to these hunting-parks does not necessarily mean a continuous wooded tract, but simply untilled ground left to grow up to weeds and shrubs that might afford a covert to game.

THE NORMAN SUCCESSORS OF THE CONQUEROR. 177

The game in these forests was protected by severe laws. To kill a deer was a greater crime than to kill a man. Several members of the Conqueror's family were killed while hunting in these royal preserves, and the people declared that these misfortunes were the judgment of Heaven upon the cruelty of their founder.

Close of William's Reign.-All the last years of the Conqueror's life were filled with trouble and sorrow. Especially after the execution of Waltheof, the last prominent leader of the Saxons, whom he put to death on account of complicity in a plot against the Normans, did everything seem to turn against William. "His bow was broken, and his sword was blunted." The most trying thing, perhaps, was the misconduct of his oldest son Robert, who attempted to secure the government of Normandy, claiming that his father had promised it to him in case his enterprise against England proved successful. Robert was joined in his revolt by many discontented nobles, and aided by the French king, who had always viewed with great jealousy the growing power of the Norman Duke. A reconciliation was at last effected between father and son.

In the year 1087 the Conqueror was engaged in his last quarrel. The French king Philip had aroused the fierce anger of William by an unseemly remark about his person. In revenge for the jest, William made war upon the king and burnt the town of Mantes. As he was riding over the smoking ruins of the place, his horse stepped upon a hot brand, shied suddenly, and threw William heavily upon the bow of his saddle, whereby he received a hurt of which he died in a few days. Before his death he made known his will as to his three sons: Robert's unfilial conduct was forgotten, and he was given Normandy; William was given England; while Henry received 5000 pounds of silver.

The Norman Successors of the Conqueror. For nearly three quarters of a century after the death of William the Conqueror, England was ruled by Norman kings. Three names span this long period, — William II., known as Rufus or the Red (1087

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1100); Henry I., surnamed Beauclerc or the "good scholar" (1100-1135); and Stephen of Blois (1135-1154), a grandson of the Conqueror.

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Notwithstanding the many oppressive laws and cruel acts that marked the reigns of the sons of the great Duke, -William and Henry, England flourished under their rule: commerce and the various industries were steadily progressing, and the Normans and English, forgetting their enmities, were gradually blending into a single people.

But upon the death of Henry a dispute as to the succession arose between his daughter Matilda and Stephen of Blois. For several years the realm was wasted by civil war. Eventually, through the mediation of the bishops of the Church, a covenant was made between the contending parties, whereby it was agreed that Stephen should hold the crown undisturbed during his life, but that at his death it should go to the son of Matilda. The year following this arrangement Stephen died, and the crown was placed, according to the treaty, upon the head of Henry of Anjou, who thus became the founder of the dynasty of the Angevins or Plantagenets (1154).

Advantages to England of the Norman Conquest. The most important and noteworthy result of the Conquest was the establishment in the island of a strong centralized government. England now became a real kingdom, - what she had hardly been in more than semblance before. A second result of the Conquest was the founding of a new feudal aristocracy. The Saxon thane was displaced by the Norman baron. A third result was the bringing of England into more intimate relations with the nations of continental Europe, by which means her advance in art, science, and general culture was greatly promoted.

HOLY PLACES AND PILGRIMAGES.

179

I.

CHAPTER III.

THE CRUSADES (1096-1273).

INTRODUCTORY: CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES.

General Statement. - The Crusades were great military expeditions undertaken by the Christian nations of Europe for the purpose of rescuing from the hands of the Mohammedans the holy places of Palestine. They were eight in number, the first four being sometimes called the Principal Crusades, and the remaining four the Minor Crusades. Besides these there were a Children's Crusade, and several other expeditions, which, being insignificant in numbers or results, are not enumerated.

We will tell first of the causes that gave birth to these remarkable enterprises; then narrate with some degree of particularity the most important events which characterized the First Crusade, passing more lightly over the incidents of the succeeding ones, as these in all essential features were simply repetitions of the first movement: and then we shall close our brief survey by a glance at the causes which brought the movements to an end, and at the good and evil results which flowed from them.

Holy Places and Pilgrimages. In all ages men have been led by curiosity, sentiment, or religion to make pilgrimages to spots which retain the memory of remarkable occurrences, or have been consecrated by human suffering or heroism. Especially has the religious sentiment of every people made the birthplaces or tombs of their prophets, saints, and martyrs places of veneration. and pilgrimage. Benares, Mecca, and Jerusalem attest the universality and strength of the sentiment among Hindus, Mohammedans, and Christians alike.

Among the early Christians it was thought a pious and meritorious act to undertake a journey to some sacred place. Prayers,

it was believed, were more efficacious when offered on consecrated ground. Tears of penitence shed above the grave of saint or martyr could wash away the stain of the blackest sin. Especially was it thought that a pilgrimage to the land that had been trod by the feet of the Saviour of the world, to the Holy City that had witnessed his martyrdom, was a peculiarly pious undertaking, and one which secured for the pilgrim the special favor and blessing of Heaven.

Pilgrims began to make visits to the Holy Land from the countries of Western Europe as soon as Christianity had taken possession of this part of the Roman Empire. At first the journey was so difficult and dangerous that it was undertaken by comparatively few. Before the conversion of the Hungarians and other tribes that held the countries between Germany and the Bosphorus, the pilgrim usually made his way to some Mediterranean port, and sought a chance passage on board some vessel engaged in the Eastern trade.

It was a great event in a community when a person announced his intention of making the holy pilgrimage. He was conducted by a great company of his friends and neighbors out of his native town, and with the benediction of the priest, and the gift of a staff and wallet, was sent forward on his pious journey.

Arriving at the Holy City, the devotee prayed and wept upon every spot pointed out by tradition as the scene of the miracles or sufferings of the Saviour. Lastly, he bathed in the sacred waters of the Jordan, and from that spot brought back with him a branch of palm, which was laid upon the altar of his native church as a token of the accomplishment of his pilgrimage. From this last circumstance one who had made a journey to the Holy Land, in distinction from a person who had made a pilgrimage to some other place, was called a palmer.

Upon his return the palmer became a person of mark and consideration. Homage was paid him by all classes, special privileges were granted him, and a certain sanctity seemed to have attached itself to his person and his acts.