of the results of their labour through Rostof to the Sea of Azof. The way in which they reach Rostof is by the noble river Don, which rolls its full tide of waters through the governments of Tvola, Tambof, Orel, Troronege, and the vast and fertile territory of the Don Cossacks. Tvola is only about 150 miles to the south of Moscow, and there is, therefore, water communication with all the seas of the world within a short distance of the capital of Great Russia. But this is not the only river that feeds the commerce of Rostof. At about 125 miles from the mouth of the Don, by two happy bends in their course, the Volga and the Don approach within forty-five miles of each other, and thus goods can be transported from the former to the latter river, and another vast circle of fertile regions can be drained of their produce for the southern market. As the Don runs through some of the most productive governments of Great Russia, so the Volga (2500 miles in length) sweeps in a larger circle to the north and east, and rising in the ancient government of Tver, becomes navigable at about an equal distance from Moscow as the Don, describes a quarter of a circle round the town, and then, bending northwards into the government of Jaroslav, passes through Rostroma and Nijni Novgorod.

At this celebrated place of Oriental traffic it effects its junction with the Oka, another artery of Great Russia, and then rolling its increased volume directly eastward to Razan, the Tartar capital, it there changes its course to the south till it nearly meets the Don. The two rivers run for a short distance parallel to one another, till, suddenly diverging, the one falls into the Azof and the other into the Caspian Sea. At the point where the rivers nearly meet, Dubofka on the Volga is about forty-five miles from Ratchálin on the Don, and vast quantities of merchandise are yearly carried across by bullock carts from one river to another. The importance of effecting their junction was very early perceived; Seleucus Nicanor, Selim II., and Peter the Great all entertained the project of uniting them by a canal, and thus supplying the only link wanting to perfect this magnificent system of river communication; . which, however, still remains incomplete, in spite of the immense saving of time and money, and the enormous increase of commerce which the cutting of such a canal would inevitably effect.

In

Having thus glanced at the topographical and descriptive portions of Mr. Seymour's book, we shall now examine shortly the two chapters which he devotes to a consideration of the composition and resources of the Russian army and navy. The origin of all the numerous naval armaments of Russia, in the present day, was the little boat, built by the hands of Peter the Great on his return from his European travels. 1836, after a lapse of 113 years, the anniversary of the launching of the little boat was, for the first time, celebrated with great pomp at Cronstadt. Twenty-six ships of the line, twenty-one frigates, ten brigs, and seven gun-boats were anchored in the roads of Cronstadt, and saluted with two thousand cannon the tiny "Grandpapa," as the little boat was called, which, placed on a steamer, was carried through the lines. The Russian fleet now consists of three divisions, two of which are in the Baltic and one in the Black Sea. These are manned by about fifty thousand seamen and officers, the latter all holding military rank. The wood of which the ships of war are built is so bad, that Mr. Seymour was

informed by Mr. Upton that a cannon-ball, which would lodge in one side of an English ship, would go right through both sides of a Russian. The seamen, too, are more properly sea-soldiers than sailors; they wear helmets, and have for their common dress the same long drab great-coats as the army, so that when the Grand Duke Constantine inspected the Black Sea Fleet, its admiral was obliged to ask permission for the sailors to take off their proper uniform, as it was found impossible for them to mount the rigging in it. The Russians have, however, not neglected to introduce into their navy all the latest discoveries and improvements in naval gunnery: and the massacre of Sinope forms an epoch in the history of naval warfare as that in which the terrible Paixhans shell system was first used. The following are Mr. Seymour's concluding remarks on the Russian navy: "The Russians, with that energy and promptitude which has been the secret of all their successes, have availed themselves of every improvement in naval gunnery, although their fleet is with them. a matter of only secondary importance. It is impossible to read the history of Russia and her opponents-that is to say, her neighbours-for the last 150 years, since the peace of Carlowitz, without observing the quickness in seizing opportunities, the absence of prejudice, the anxious desire for improvement, and the alacrity in repairing errors when they have been committed, which are the true methods by which an individual or a nation can best attain the object of its desires, be they good or bad."

Let us remember, "Fas est ab hoste doceri."

We now come to the consideration of the military power of Russia, upon which subject Mr. Seymour has derived his information from M. Haxthausen, who had access to Russian official records, and also from M. Tegoborski, the mouthpiece of the government at St. Petersburg. Taking the army, with all its reserves, at 1,000,000 (M. Tegoborski says it may be raised to 1,250,000), the male population of Russia at 30,000,000, and the able-bodied males at 15,000,000, it follows that every fifteenth man is a soldier, either in actual service, or liable to be called out, which is certainly the case at the present moment. our own country one man in fifty is a regular soldier, and nowhere throughout Europe is the proportion so great as in Russia. She evidently requires the attention of the Peace Society, those advocates of quiescence and non-resistance, who had better send delegates to St. Petersburg to endeavour to abate this gigantic military nuisance, than empty the oratorical vials of their wrath upon the comparatively insignificant military establishments of their own country.

In

In spite of the pacific tendencies of the mass of the people, upon which our author repeatedly and strongly insists, the organisation of society in Russia is purely and essentially military. All kinds of merit are rewarded by military rank. The Grand Mufti of the Tartars was made a general after the conquest of the Crimea; Professor Pallas was made a major-general; and Mr. Seymour tells us that he knew an old Armenian schoolmaster at Tiflis who was a field-officer. The result of this system is, that the peace-loving tastes of the people cannot possibly develop themselves. Agriculture is looked down upon, and commerce repressed and discouraged by the high tariff. The public mind, too, as a general rule, is studiously prevented from doing anything which might tend to

inspire it with more accurate ideas or more enlarged and liberal views. No Russian is allowed to be educated or to travel out of Russia between the ages of twelve and twenty-five. He must remain at home, so that his character may be modelled ad exemplar regis as the Czar thinks best; and, even after twenty-five, a medical certificate is necessary in order to obtain permission to travel, and a tax of 167. per annum is levied during each year of absence as the price of a passport. After five years of continued absence the absentee ceases to be a Russian, and forfeits all his property. Such is the machinery contrived by the government in order to prevent its subjects from becoming dissatisfied with their own despotism, or imbibing foreign notions of freedom inimical to the interests of the reigning family.

The children of all soldiers are the property of the emperor, and are brought up at separate establishments maintained entirely by government. In 1842 there were 36,000 of these children, who were formed into a little army of twenty-five battalions of infantry and twenty squadrons of cavalry.

When they grow up they become sergeants, musicians, assistant surgeons, and topographers in the army. The Russian common soldier is frequently decorated with the soldier's Cross of St. George, which is made of lead, but given only for instances of distinguished bravery, and is accordingly much sought after even by officers of the highest rank. The Grand Cross of St. George is given only for having taken the capital of an enemy, or for having gained a battle which has decided the fate of a kingdom. A few years ago there were only two Grand Crosses in existence; one worn by the Duke of Wellington, and the other by Marshal Paskievitch.

The number of men sacrificed to the insatiable Moloch of the Russian military system is truly fearful. It may be thus exhibited in a tabular form. In the last fifteen years there will be a total of—

men who have passed through the Russian service since 1840, and who are represented now, by the very highest calculation-that of M. Tegoborski-by from 800,000 to 900,000 men, which he says was the number upon which the military budget was calculated in the year 1854; consequently, 1,350,000 men have disappeared through the agency of the Russian army since 1840.

The

expense

of this enormous military force is very great. "It may fairly be supposed (says Mr. Seymour) that Russia will want at least 48,000,000l. to cover the expenses of the year 1854, which is 11,000,000%. more than the total amount of her revenue during the last year of peace, 1853. Her credit in Europe is indeed pretty good, but it is notorious that she depends upon foreign capital for the cultivation of her soil. The precious metals have almost disappeared from the empire; paper alone is seen there; and if we press her hard during the next six months, she must be reduced to very great straits."

The most effective part of the Russian forces is the great army of Poland, which, at the end of 1850, amounted to upwards of 600,000 men, 80,000 of whom were cavalry. This last is an arm in which the Russians seem particularly strong, and which must give them a great advantage in a battle in the open field. Besides the cavalry of the army of Poland there are 90,000 Cossack troopers, and the splendid cavalry of the corps of the guards, consisting of 60 squadrons of regular, and 17 of irregular horse; and also that of the grenadier corps, amounting to 32 squadrons.

Mr. Seymour thus sums up the results of his examination of the present state of the Russian army:

"Each man that falls now becomes of great importance to the emperor, for the conscription is becoming more and more difficult, and bearing with increased severity upon all the interests of the empire. The age at which conscripts are now taken is raised to thirty-seven; and the sons of aged or widowed parents, who have hitherto been exempted, are to serve, and be formed into separate corps. I believe that in the manufacturing establishments of Russia as many as 25 per cent. of the workmen have lately been carried off for the conscription.

"The difficulties of Russia are increasing every day, and it is hardly possible for her to carry on the war for another six months, if, with our change of ministry, we likewise have a change of system; and if, at home and in the Crimea, our superior officials, both military and civil, have anything like that intelligence, activity, intrepidity, and singleminded love of their country displayed by the common soldiers and regimental officers of our army, who have hitherto been the only bulwarks to save us from national disgrace."

THE POETRY OF CREATION.*

"THE Poetry of Creation" is the theme of the Bard of Antiquity. Like the Pencerdd Gwlad of Wales and the Scalds of northern nations, Mr. Michell delights only in things pertaining to far-gone times-" Ruins of Many Lands," or "Spirits of the Past." His themes are, indeed, almost Miltonic; "The Poetry of Creation" is especially so. The earth had to be presented to us in all the freshness of those glories which the great Architect of Nature had impressed upon it; Nature herself had to be seized in all her manifold aspects of beauty and grandeur. The task was a great one. The daily discoveries of science had also to be made subservient to the poet's purpose. None more laborious, when research is wanted, than Mr. Michell. "The Poetry of Creation" will add another wreath to those he has already so fairly won. Its merits are of a high

order.

The Poetry of Creation. In Seven Parts. By Nicholas Michell, Author of "Ruins of Many Lands," &c. Chapman and Hall.

WESTERN WANDERINGS.*

It is not a little curious that after so many works have been published illustrative of the public life of our sympathising cousins on the other side of the Atlantic, that a sharp, shrewd, and clever fellow like Mr. Kingston should have had to learn the discomforts of a New York hotel by practical experience. Imagine the author and his wife on a wedding-tour, when all was couleur de rose, landing from the steamer, not a little travel-stained and unpolished, to be conducted through the brilliantly-lighted corridors of the St. Nicholas, with richly adorned apartments opening on either side, all crowded with ladies and gentlemen in evening costume:

I was somewhat of her opinion, and after we had made two or three turns among the gay and laughing throng without meeting any one to whom we could apply for information to direct our steps, I agreed to beat a retreat, when I recognised the waiter I was to meet. He quickly led us to our rooms, which were on the same floor, in the very midst of the hubbub and bustle. Gladly would we, at that moment, have exchanged this gorgeous magnificence for a neat, whitewashed, dimity-curtained quiet chamber in a cool climate; but we were too tired and hot to attempt to move, even to another floor, after we had once thrown ourselves into two damask-covered chairs which offered some temptation to rest our weary limbs. There we sat contemplating our apartment, while some Irish porters were bringing up our dingy black trunks-incongruous articles among so much splendour. From an arabesque ceiling hung a gilt lamp, emitting bright jets of gas; large mirrors in gilt frames adorned each wall; richly-coloured damask curtains shaded the windows; and damask-covered sofas and chairs were scattered about; but in the centre, four crooked legs supported a small marble slab, the only and most comfortless apology for a table in the room. Even the bedroom had no dressing-table, and but a scanty washing

apparatus.

No wonder that, fancying it was necessary to don a costume fit to encounter the gay throng at the tea or supper-table, and feeling themselves incapable of so much exertion, they should ring the bell to solicit the favour of a little food being brought to them in their own room. After waiting, however, for a long time, an Irish lad rolled into the room, placing a jug of iced water on the table, and was rolling out again, when Mr. Kingston begged him to bring tea.

"That ain't my business; but I

and the youth disappeared.

guess I'll see about it," was the reply,

Our travellers waited till their parched throats would let them wait no longer, and then rang again:

At the second summons another Irish lad sauntered in with a further supply of iced water, and he likewise promised to endeavour to get our wants supplied; but he proved faithless as the first. A third time I rang, and a third youth came in, like the first, with more water, huge lumps of ice floating in it, as if we could not possibly require anything else in that hot weather. I, however, so pathetically entreated to have some more substantial food, that at length he induced a fourth waiter to come and receive our orders. A teapot, with a few

* Western Wanderings; or, a Pleasure Tour in the Canadas. By William H. G. Kingston. Two Vols. London: Chapman and Hall.