the meaning of any word we underfiand not, of him that ufesit : it being as impoffible to know certainly what the words jealousy and adultery (which I think answer NP and ) fland for in another man's mind, with whom I would difcourfe about them; as it was impoffible, in the beginning of language, to know what Kin neah and Niouph ftood for in another man's mind, without explication, they being voluntary figns in every one. $46. Inflance of Subflances in Zahab.

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LET us now also confider, after the fame manner, the names of substances in their firft application. One of Adam's children, roving in the mountains, lights on a glit tering fubftance which pleafes his eye; home he carries it to Adam, who, upon confideration of it finds it to be hard, to have a bright yellow colour, and an exceeding great weight. Thefe, perhaps at first, are all the qualities he takes notice of in it and abftracting this com plex idea, confifting of a fubftance having that peculiar bright yellowness, and a weight very great in proportion to its bulk, he gives it the name Zahab, to denote and mark all substances that have these fenfible qualities in them. It is evident now that, in this cafe, Adam acts quite differently from what he did before in forming thofe ideas of mixed modes, to which he. gave the name Kinneah and Niomph. For there he puts ideas together, only by his own imagination, not taken from the exiftance of any thing; and to them he gave names to denominate all things that fhould happen to agree to thofe hisabstract ideas, without confidering whether any fuch thing did exift or no : the ftandard there was of his own making. But in the forming his idea of this new fubftance, he takes the quite contrary courfe; here he has a standard made by nature; and therefore being to reprefent that to himfelf, by the idea he has of it, even when it is abfent, he puts in no fimple idea into his complex one, but what he has the perception of from the thing itself. He takes care that his idea be conformable to this archetype, and intends the name should stand for an idea fo conformable.

$47.

THIS piece of matter, thus denominated Zahab by Adam, being quite different from any he had feen before, nobody, I think, will deny to be a diftinct fpecies, and to have its peculiar effence; and that the name Zahab is the mark of the fpecies, and a name belonging to all things partaking in that effence. But here it is plain, the effence, Adam made the name Zabab ftand for, was nothing but a body hard, fhining, yellow, and very heavy. But the inquifitive mind of man, not content with the knowledge of thefe, as I may fay fuperficial qualities, puts Adam on farther examination of this matter. He therefore knocks and beats it with flints, to fee what was discoverable in the infide: he finds it yield to blows, but not eafily feparate into pieces: he finds it will bend without breaking. Is not now ductility to be added to his former idea, and made part of the effence of the fpecies that name Zahab ftands for? Farther trials difcover fufity and fixednefs. Are not they alfo, by the fame... realon that any of the others were, to be put into the complex idea fignified by the name Zakab? If not, what reafon will there be thown more for the one than the other? If thefe muft, then all the other properties, which any farther trials fhall difcover in this matter, ought by the fame reafon to make a part of the ingredients of the complex idea, which the name Zahab stands for, and fo be the effence of the fpecies marked by that name. Which properties, because they are endlefs, it is plain, that the idea made after this fashion by this archetype, will be always inadequate.

§ 48 Their Ideas imperfect, and therefore various. BUT this is not all, it would alfo follow, that the names of fubftances would not only have (as in truth they have) but would alfo be fuppofed to have different fignifications, as used by different men, which would very much cumber the ufe of language. For if every diftinct quality, that were difcovered in any matter by any one, were supposed to make a neceffary part of the complex idea, fignified by the common name given it, it must follow, that men muft fuppofe the fame word to fignify different things . VOL. II.

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in different men; fince they cannot doubt but different men may have discovered feveral qualities in fubftances of the fame denomination, which others know nothingof. § 49. Therefore to fix their Species, a real Essence is fup

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pofed.

To avoid this, therefore, they have fuppofed a real effence belonging to every species, from which these properties all flow, and would have their name of the fpecies ftand for that. But they not having any idea of that real effence in fubftances, and their words fignifying nothing but the ideas they have, that which is done by this attempt, is only to put the name or found in the place and ftead of the thing having that real effence, without knowing what the real effence is; and this is that which men do, when they speak of species of things, as fuppofing them Amade by nature, and diftinguished by real effences.ff § 50. Which Supposition is of no use. pros For let us confider, when we affirm, that all gold is fixed, either it means that fixednefs is a part of the dition, part of the nominal effence the word gold ftands for and fo this affirmation, all gold is fixed, contains nothing but the fignification of the term gold. Or elle it means, that fixednefs not being a part of the definition of the word gold, is a property of that fubftance itself; in which cafe, it is plain, that the word gold ftands in the place of a substance, having the real effence of a fpecies of things made by nature. In which way of fubftitution it has fo confufed and uncertain a fignification, that though this propofition, gold is fixed, be in that fenfe an affirmation of fomething real, yet it is a truth will always fail us in its particular application, and so is of no real ufe nor certainty. For let it be ever so true, that all gold, ie all that has the real effence of gold, is fixed, what ferves this for? whilst we know not in this fenfe what is or is not gold? For if we know not the real effence of gold, it is impoffible we should know what parcel of matter has that effence, and fo whether it be true gold or no.

§ 51 Conclufion. To conclude: what liberty Adam bad at first to make

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any complex ideas of mixed modes, by no other patterns abut by his own thoughts, the fame have all men ever finee had. And the fame neceflity of conforming his ideas of fubftances to things without him, as to archetypes made by nature, that Adam was under, if he would not wilfully impofe upon himself, the fame are all men ever fince under too. The fame liberty also that Adam had of affixing any new name to any idea, the fame has any one fill (efpecially the beginners of languages, if we can imagine any fuch) but only with this difference, that in places where men in fociety have already eftablifhed a language amongst them, the fignification of words are very warily and fparingly to be altered: becaufe men being furnished already with names for their ideas, and common ufe having appropriated, known names to certain ideas, an affected mifapplication of them cannot but be very ridiculous. He that hath new notions, will, perhaps, venture fometimes on the coining new terms to express them: but men think it a boldnefs, and it is uncertain whether common ufe will ever make them pafs for current. But in communication with others, it is neceflary, that we conform the ideas we make the vulgar words of any language ftand for, to their known proper fignifications (which I have explain ed at large already) or elfe to make known that new fignification we apply them to.

CHAP. VII.

OF PARTICLES.

1. Particles connect Parts, or whole Sentences together. ESIDES words, which are names of ideas in the

B mind, there are a great many others that are

made ufe of, to fignify the connection that the mind gives to ideas, or propofitions, one with another. The mind in communicating its thought to others, does not only need figns of the ideas it has then before it, but others also, to fhow or intimate fome particular action of its own, at that time, relating to thofe ideas. This it does feveral ways; as is and is not, are the general marks of the

mind, affirming or denying. But befides affirmation or negation, without which there is in words no truth or falfehood, the mind does, in declaring its fentiments to others, connect not only the parts of propofitions, but whole fentences one to another, with their feveral relations and dependencies, to make a coherent difcourfe

§2. In them confifts the Art of Well Speaking, THE words, whereby it fignifies what connection it gives to the feveral affirmations and negations, that is Boites in one continued reafoning or narration, are gener ally called particles and it is in the right ufe of thefe, that more particularly confifts the clearnefs and beauty of a good style. To think well, it is not enough that a man has ideas clear and diftinct in his thoughts, nor that he obferves the agreement or difagreement of fome of them; but he must think in train, and obferve the de pendence of his thoughts and reafonings upon one anoth

er.

And to exprefs well fuch methodical and rational thoughts, he must have words to bow what connection restriction, diftinction, oppofition, emphasis, &c. he gives to each refpective part of his difcourfe. To mistake in any of thefe, is to puzzle, inftead of informing his hearer, and therefore it is that thofe words, which are not truly by themselves the names of any ideas, are of fuch con-, ftant and indifpenfable ufe in language, and do much contribute to men's well expreffing themfelves.

§ 3. They bow what Relation the Mind gives to its own Thoughts.

THIS part of grammar has been perhaps as much neglected, as fome others over-diligently cultivated. It is eafy for men to write, one after another, of cafes and gen ders, modes and tenfos, gerunds and fupines. In thefe, and the like, there has been great diligence ufed; and particles themselves, in fome languages, have been, with great fhow of exactness, ranked into their feveral orders. But though prepofitions and conjunctions, &c. are names well known in grammar, and the particles contained under them carefully ranked into their diftinct fubdivif ions: yet he who would fhow the right ufe of particles, and what fignificancy and force they have, muit take a