Natural Science.

and is almost uniformly attended by lightning. Other points of difference naturally present them

COMMUNICATIONS for this Department should be ad- selves in considering the causes by which hail is dressed to I. F. CADY, Warren.

For the Schoolmaster.
Hail.

produced.

As hail-storms are attended with electrical phenomena it might naturally be inferred that electricity is the efficient cause of their production. This A lad of twelve years, with whom I was walking was the opinion generally entertained by philosoa few days since, proposed a question which decid- phers until within the last twenty-five or thirty ed a half-formed purpose of some six months ago, years. Upon this opinion was founded the theory respecting an article for THE SCHOOLMASTER. of Volta, more remarkable for its ingenuity, proIn hail-storms he arguThe previous night had been stormy; and, as fre- bably, than for its truth. quently happens during our winter storms, there ed that there exist two parallel strata of clouds, had been a successive fall of snow, rain and hail, situated one at some convenient distance above or, more accurately, of sleet. This had left the the other. From the upper surface of the lower surface covered with rounded particles of ice, which strata he supposed the process of evaporation to prompted the question, "Why the hail of winter proceed so rapidly as to produce a degree of cold was so much finer than that of summer?" This sufficient to congeal the vapor. This would result question was easily answered by replying that the in the formation of a snowy nucleus. The two winter hail, or sleet, is produced by the freezing of strata of clouds he supposed to be in opposite elecrain-drops in passing through a stratum of cold trical states, so that the snowy nuclei would be air as they approach the surface of the earth. This alternately attracted and repelled, like images of species of hail is precisely that "frozen rain" which pith between the two plates of an electrical mahail is defined to be in the old book, from which I chine. At each passage from cloud to cloud the first studied at the mistress' knee," bearing the nuclei would receive fresh accessions of vapor, very intelligible title, to my juvenile apprehension, which, in freezing, would surround them with a of "An Easy Standard of Pronunciation." Intel- coating of ice: this would continue to increase in ligible, of course, it must have been, for I do not thickness until its weight became sufficient to carrecollect that my credulity was in the least staggered by it in those years when the young ideas were learning

how to shoot."

ry them through the lower strata, when they would, of course, be precipitated upon the earth. In France this theory was received with such confidence that multitudes of lightning rods, or rather At present I may be pardoned for admitting the "hail rods," were erected in those districts which charge of skepticism in regard to the genuineness were most liable to be ravaged by hail, in order to of such "an easy standard." Such a book would draw the electricity from the clouds and thus precertainly be a desideratum in our schools at the vent destruction. It is stated in Appleton's Cyclopresent day, for we find our pupils consuming years pædia that an insurance company was oganized in without attaining all that we might expect from a France in the year 1829, to protect against the rabook worthy of such a title. But, waiving the con-vages of hailstones, and that the practice of erectsideration of its claims as a "standard of pronun- ing "hail rods," which was inaugurated near the ciation," the "authorities" forbid our adoption close of the last century, afterward extended into of its scientific definitions, at least in this particu- Germany, Switzerland and Italy. Although the lar instance; for, according to their theories, hail theory of Volta was too fanciful to be received with is not "frozen rain" at all. Hail and "frozen much confidence by men of science, still the "hail rain," or sleet, differ from each other in several rods" continued to be used, with the belief that "And in 1847. important respects. Hail is formed in higher re- they afforded valuable protection. gions of the atmosphere than sleet, is wholly dif- when an application was made to Arago to recomferent in its structure, and is produced by causes mend some protection against 'the hail storm,' he which, notwithstanding the attention given to the proposed the use of balloons communicating with subject by men of science, are by no means per- the earth by a metallic wire in order to discharge fectly understood. The manner in which sleet is the electricity of the clouds, as if this were the formed is obvious. The rain, as it approaches the cause, and not merely a concomitant, of the proearth, encounters a degree of cold greater than duction of hail." The hypothesis that hail is prothat of the place whence it started; and hence duced by electricity does not, however, seem to be falls to the ground in particles of ice. The case is sustained by facts, for forests of trees, which might analogous to that of water falling in frozen drops with propriety be regarded as legions of "hail when projected upward, in intensely cold weather, rods," afford no reliable security against the ravafrom a fire engine. Hail also falls almost exclu- ges of hail; and in the torrid zone, where atmossively in summer, or in the latter portion of spring. pherical electricity is most accumulated, hail storms During this period sleet never falls. Hail, on the almost never make their appearance. contrary, is almost or quite unknown in winter,

A more probable theory is that of Prof. Olm

millions of dollars.

"Behold [fast] settling o'er the lurid grove
Unusual darkness broods, and growing, gains
The full possession of the sky, surcharged
With wrathful vapor."

"The

stead, of Yale College. He regards electricity as range of hills with an abrupt eastern declivity. an effect of hail storms and not their cause. He My father's house, situated nearly half a mile to supposes hail to be produced by the meeting of the eastward of the hill crests, gave a view of just currents of warm air with those which are cold, so much of the approaching storm, and left just so and that the development of electricity is one of much concealed behind the hills which lifted up the natural results. Several facts are urged in their abrupt, wooded slopes, like a broad curtain, favor of this view. First, hail storms occur al- in front, as to give to the scene its most picturesque most exclusively in the temperate zones, where and impressive effect. The cloud rose rapidly and alone very cold currents of air are likely to encoun- expanded as it rose. The application of a part of ter those which are warm. Within the tropics the Thompson's description of a thunder storm to its opposing currents do not differ sufficiently in tem- development is perfect: perature to produce the phenomena of hail, neither of them being sufficiently cold, while the same result follows in the polar regions, from the fact that neither of the opposing currents is sufficiently It certainly seemed to me that a "magazine of warm. Second, hail storms frequently occur in fate" was preparing; for, in its progress, the gaththe vicinity of mountains whose tops are constant-ering storm filled me with excessive terror. ly covered with ice and snow. Hence we may in-dash of clouds" and the "irritating war of fightfer the cause of the hail storms which annually ing winds" were quite too obvious to my affrightravage the region lying between the Alps and Py-ed senses; and when the "sheet of livid flame" renees, and which, by their work of destruction blazed overhead, followed by "the loosened, agupon the vineyards, are said to occasion a yearly gravated roar, crashed horrible," and "the deluge loss of revenue amounting to more than nine mil- of sonorous hail," had it been possible, I believe I should have endeavored to find a refuge in the very The long and narrow track generally left by hail bowels of the earth. The next thing to this seemstorms also indicates the action of aerial currents, ed to be "the dark closet"; and having, “in vain, a remarkable instance of which is cited in Brock-in vain, alas!" endeavored to persuade father, lesby's Meteorology. It is that of a hail storm mother, sister or brother to accompany me thither, which, in the course of a few hours, travelled in a I hastened on my way, "solitary and alone"; and double track from the south of France across the closing the door which shut out from me the intolcountry to Holland, forming "Two parallel paths erable glare of the lightning, I allowed the rattling from S. W. to N. E.; the length of one being four of the hail and the roaring of the thunder to chant hundred and thirty-five miles and that of the other a lullaby which soon sent my terrified thoughts four hundred and ninety-seven miles. The aver- ranging in the land of dreams. When I awoke, age width of the eastern track was five miles, and the storm had spent its fury, but a scene of desothat of the western, ten; and upon the space com- lation was spread around. During the storm the prised between them, which was twelve and a half wind had blown from the west, northwest and miles in breadth, no hail fell, but only a heavy southwest, by turns, bursting one door from its rain." Prof. Brocklesby does not give the date of hinges, and leaving scarcely a single unbroken this storm, but I think it must be the same that is pane of glass in the house, except upon the eastdescribed in Appleton's Cyclopædia as follows: ern side. In the track of the storm, which pursu"The memorable storm of July, 1788, passed over ed a zigzag course, the crops of wheat, rye and France in two parallel lines from S. W. to N. E.; oats were utterly ruined. Indian corn was splinone line extended about five hundred miles in tered to the ground and nearly destroyed; the aplength, and the other about six hundred miles; ples and other fruits, together with a large share the mean breadth of each was only about nine of the leaves, were pelted from the trees, and othmiles, and the interval between them, in which the er crops were seriously damaged. The hailstones, rain fell in torrents, was fifteen miles." For the which were, many of them, more than an inch in numerical discrepancies in the two statements, of diameter, were driven by the wind with great viocourse, somebody is responsible. The track of hail lence. The lightning and thunder were terrific to storms with us, I think, is generally much narrower stouter hearts than mine. Trees and rocks were than those indicated above. That of one which found rent and splintered by the lightning in seveoccurred about the time when I shed my frocks ral places on my father's farm. When I rememand pinafores to don" the manly breeches," and ber how excessively I was then terrified, I almost which left an indelible impression upon my child- wonder that I can now contemplate similar scenes ish memory, scarcely extended over a breadth of with calmness, and even pleasure. None, howevtwo miles. It first appeared as a cloud of very er, will deny, on reflection, that such storms are dark hue, apparently but little more than a rod in among the grandest exhibitions of nature, and width, rising almost vertically, with its rounded when regarded with a philosophic eye, they are edges shining like gold, behind a succession of divested of a large share of what makes them ledges, called the Flat Rocks, which crown a high dreadful.

It is still a question by what forces hail-stones yard; under the next the number that it takes of are kept suspended until they attain their full size, square feet to make a square yard; and under which generally ranges from about one-fourth of your lowest denomination the number that it takes an inch to an inch in diameter, though instances feet to make a yard in length. The class can now are on record, which are regarded as authentic, in see if they agree, and then find the difference be which they have acquired a diameter of as many tween the minuend and subtrahend. as four inches. Statements in regard to masses of 5. Write a proper and an improper fraction, a ice weighing from ten to fifteen pounds falling in mix number, a compound and a complex fraction. the form of hail are to be received with some re- Now add your mix number to your improper fracserve. The theory of Volta, which regards the tion, and multiply the amount by your compound hail-stones as dancing between two clouds during fraction; from the product subtract your proper their formation, would account very ingeniously fraction, and divide the remainder by your comfor their remaining suspended in the air, but, un-plex fraction. fortunately, it fails in other particulars of equal 6. Divide 5. by 5, 5. by .5, .5 by 5., .5 by .5. importance. Another theory is that, "When the Add the several quotients together and multiply hail-stones are formed, they are also carried along the sum by 5. 5. SHUNOCK. through the atmosphere by currents of wind in a Westerly. direction very oblique to the horizon, by which means they are kept suspended a sufficient length of time to acquire the dimensions they possess by congealing the particles of humid vapor with which they successively come in contact." Still another the words in italics : theory is that, in the intermingling of the hot and cold currents of air, by which the hail is produced, a vortex is produced through which the hail-stones are carried upward as by a water-spout, whence. they are borne outward from the ceutre through fall. successive layers of cold and warm air, constantly Light issued forth, and at the other door obseacquiring fresh accessions of bulk, until they are quious darkness entered, till her hour to veil the finally precipitated from the outer circles of the whirlwind to the earth.

QUESTIONS FOR

1. F. C.

Written Examinations.

For the Schoolmaster.

Grammar.

ANALYZE the following sentences and parse the

Good Morning. Farewell.

Whatsoever he bids you that do.

Whichever it is it makes no difference.

Whoso thinketh he standeth take heed lest he

heavens; though darkness there might well seem twilight here.

What you do, do well.

As many as were ordained to eternal life believed. By this habitual indelicacy the virgins smiled at what they blushed before.

Censure is the tax which man pays the public for

COMMUNICATIONS for this Department should be ad- being eminent. drassed to A. J. MANCHESTER, Providence.

For the Schoolmaster.
Arithmetical Questions.

FOR A CLASS THAT HAVE BEEN AS FAR IN WRIT

TEN ARITHMETIC AS INTEREST.

1. Define the terms "science" and "art," and give illustrations showing their meaning as applied to mathematics.

2. What is the sum of the products of the following numbers: 85 and 75, 65 and 75, 25 and 35, 84 and 25? (The products to be found mentally.) 3. Express the foliowing example in its correct form: 20 mi., 20 fur.. 2) rd., 2) ft.

Under

Reflect on the state of human life and the society of men as mixed with good and evil.

Charles was a man of learning, knowledge and benevolence, and what is still more, a true ChristProvidence.

ian

For the Schoolmaster.

One Hundred Words to be Defined.

8.

Civil War, Army, Ambulance, Barracks, Flank, Forage, Garrison, Haversack, Ration, Reveille, Tattoo, Ammunition, Amnesty, Artillery, Brigade, Canteen, Capitulation, Evacuate, Holsters, Knapsack, Armory, Bounty, Calibre, Cartridge, Cavalry, Challenge, Armistice, Parley, Conscription, Bivouac, Bayonet, Vanguard, Subaltern, Fuze, Esplanade, Carbine. Canister, Bombardment, Ambuscade, Countersign, Embrasure, Ford, Furlough, 4. Write down the abridged characters in the Manoeuvre, Howitzer. Reconnoissance, Transporta table of English money, (£, s. d. qr.) tion, Embarkation, Debarkation, Secession, Fleet, Blockade, Marque, Volunteer, Rebel, Traitor, pounds write the number that it takes square Smuggle, Equip, Sentinel, Proclamation, Menace, inches to equal a square ft.; under shillings the Neutrality, Naval. Confederate, Magazine, Saninumber that it takes inches to make a foot in tary. Contraband, Scout, Patrol, Cabinet, Secretary, Muzzle, Civilians, Pontoon. Feint, Reserve, length; under pence the number that it takes of Negotiate, Ratify, Allegiance, Emergency, Trunquarts to equal a peck; and under farthings the ion, Expedition, Repulsed, Truce, Belligerent, number that it takes of pints to equal a quart. Fort, Redoubt, Veteran, Campaign, Colonel, MaAgain, write under your highest denomination the jor, Captain, Major General, Brigadier General, Lieutenant, Regiment, Corporal, Private, Caisson, number that it takes of solid feet to make a solid Victory.

F. B. C. Davis, Public School, Westerly...
S. A. Briggs, Public School, E. Greenwich, 3 00 Misses H. P. Martin and G. Buffinton, Pri-
Charles E. Howes, Public School, District

that each shall come up to his own duty in the The several faculties of the mind are not developed matter, and bear his part of the labor and self-de- at the same time, and a true system of education nial. If you love your work, do not withdraw your the right studies at the right age. To address a must adapt itself to this philosophy, by presenting influence from the only direct organ of your pro- young child as a man, would be as fruitless as to atfession in the State.

The School Commissioner's Report.

tempt to govern a man as a child.

Memory is manifested at the earliest period. Imitation always rises early in the morn of life. By these two powers, the child learns to read. What an immense array of ingenuity, talent and tact, may be This State report is already before the citizens of brought into action by a skillful educator of childhood, in drilling his classes in spelling and reading! our little commonwealth. We have been pleased Then he gives the first and most enduring instruction with the genial tone of the report. It is really "Mul- in posture and gesture; in tone and pitch of voice; tum in Parvo." The Commissioner has here the evi- in the graceful pronunciation of mingled vowels and dence of his faithful inspection of our school system. sentences. The teacher ought to be a living model, consonants; and in the sonorous enunciation of whole He has been unwearied in his efforts to shake the from which the young pupil is to take his first attempt hands of teachers, and sit by them in their school- at mental sculpture. The highest success of the room work. He commends where justice allows, and schoolmaster can be gained only by constant, earnest castigates where stripes are needed. As one exponent sentence aloud with appropriate inflections, he wakes and thoughtful labor. When the teacher reads every of the warm interest which our worthy Commission- the attention of his scholars, brings them into a tracter takes in his work, we cite his constant attendance able state, and by constant repetition creates in them a habit of correct and impressive reading. upon all of the Teachers' Institutes, within his power. It is cheering to the teachers to welcome the school officials of the State to their meetings. He has in his report, in more instances than one, "hit the nail on the head." Hear what he says of

PRIMARY SCHOOLS.

TEACHERS' INSTITUTE.

Teachers' Institute have been held: the first at During the present winter, three sessions of the Carolina Mills, on the 22d and 23d of November; the second at Peacedale, on the 20th and 21st of December; and the third at Chepachet, on the 3d and 4th of the present month, (January.)

There is a general delusion in many districts as to I feel gratified in being able to say that these the qualifications of a primary teacher. Those teach- Institutes were well attended by the teachers, maers whose price is small, because their talents are ny of whom, though unaccustomed to public speakmoderate, are hired to the exclusion of others, whose ing, participated in the interesting and instructive price is higher, because their talents are greater. A debates, exhibiting no little depth of thought and spendthrift might weigh out his gold in coarse scales, clearness of expression. No better plan could be as if the precious ore were as cheap as old junk or devised than a session of the Teachers' Institute, iron; but no economical man would imitate such a for the development of powers of extemporaneous senseless procedure. Shall the young minds of our discussion on the part of young teachers, demandState, more valuable than gold, be put under the ing of them immmediate answers to questions control of those who are ignorant of the elementary about their daily experience, and thus forming in sounds of the alphabet? ignorant of the simple rules them habits of self-reliance and energy. of grammar? and in fine, so ignorant of the art of Some of the Providence teachers have, at the teaching, as to make every lesson repulsive to their expense of their own case, attended all the ses little pupils. sions. Very able lectures on different modes of The first point is to provide healthful and commo- instruction and class-drills were delivered by Mr. dious school houses. There are now far too many Kendall, Principal of the Normal School, and by badly constructed school houses in rural districts; Messrs. Mowry and DeMunn, of Providence. the seats ill-arranged, with the scholars' backs While teachers have been-according to their against the cold walls; one end of the room heated by acknowledgment-benefited by the various exerthe stove to a torrid temperature, while the other is cises, the citizens of the three localities have felt freezing into an Arctic rigor; and not a convenient an increased interest in the cause of common place for the recitation of the classes. If such build-schools. The effect upon all, trustees, committees. ings were designed to mortify the pride of teachers, teachers and communities, was quite obvious. It and wean the minds of children from too deep a love is probable that there will be several other sessions of the things of this world, perhaps it would be un- of the Institute during the present year. I am wise to institute a change. If, on the other hand, the glad to announce that the members of the society true end of education is to develope all the faculties were welcomed by the citizens of the three places of children in harmony with a sense of the right and with a generous hospitality. the beautiful, then teachers and scholars should always meet in pleasant, airy, cheerful school-rooms.

or.

NORMAL SCHOOL.

The Normal School maintains, under the careIt requires a nicer tact, more instinctive talent, to ful direction of Mr. Joshua Kendall, a reputation manage successfully a primary school than one of a for thoroughness and earnestness equal to that higher grade. In the latter, the ambition of scholars, which it had during the administration of the laand the pride of parents, assist the learned instruct-mented Colburn. Under Mr. Kendall and his exIn the former, the first traces are to be drawn perienced associates, this institution will continue on the unexercised mind of infancy; habits of thought to increase in usefulness; it will widen every year are to be formed; attention is to be aroused to take the mental requisites for the office of teachers; its initial step; and the interior mental world is to make them graft high culture upon native tact; be brought into the earliest contact with the external ripen their learning into professional wisdom; and world; in short, the impressions, then stamped on a build up in them a self-respect commensurate with child, are the elements out of which he is to work the the large duties they owe to the State. Into the great problem of human life. A wrong direction hard struggle to overcome ignorance. this instituthen given to his mind may lead him upon a moral tion will send out every year some valiant teachers, curve, forever bending from the line of truth and the picket-guards of the mind, to defend the most right. exposed positions of our educational forces.