doubt; but it is ridiculous to attempt to bind them irrevocably together, since they are wont to try their chance alone more often than to work in concert. The mere titles of the papers read in Section A last year sufficiently illustrate this truth; and we could almost draw a straight line, so to speak, between the Mathematical papers on the one hand, and the Physical papers on the other. In Mathematics we find Professor H. J. S. Smith in full force, with a "Report on the Theory of Numbers" (a continuation, we presume, of his Report on the same subject last year), and a paper "On a Property of Surfaces of the Second Order." Papers were also read by Professor Plücker (whose name is mentioned with honour in another part of our Retrospect) "On Complexes of the Second Order;" by Professor R. Harley, "On Differential Resolvents," &c. Among the Physical papers of importance were Mr. J. P. Harrison's, "On the Heat obtained by the Moon under Solar Radiation;" Professor Jellett's, “On a Fluid possessing Opposite Rotatory Powers for Rays at Opposite Ends of the Spectrum;" Mr. F. Galton's, "On the Conversion of Wind Charts into Passage Charts," and many others.

In Section B, the President reminded his audience of the extraordinary progress of Chemistry within the last few years. He said among other things, "It seems but a few years ago when we were taught that the animal and vegetable kingdoms were composed of entirely different kinds of substances." After. illustrating this remark by examples, he added: "At the present time, no chemical distinction whatever between vegetables and animals can be made; and except in the mode in which these different substances are produced in the two kingdoms of nature, no chemical difference exists." It is rather unfortunate that men of high scientific attainments should not always possess the power of expressing themselves intelligibly. Dr. H. Bence Jones tells us that our modern education is far inferior to that of a Greek or Roman youth "say twenty centuries ago." He is wrong in making that assertion, as it seems to us; but he himself affords a curious illustration of the idea. With his mind full of knowledge, he seems totally unable to place his information properly before the public. The quotations which we have made above as to the animal and vegetable kingdoms are almost incomprehensible as they stand. What Dr. Jones meant to say, we presume, was this: that all known organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, is resolvable into two or more of a limited number of component elements, which, for the present, as we know no better, we designate as simple substances.

Numerous papers were read in this Section, but they were for the most part of a minute and technical character. That of Mr. H. Larkin, however, "On the Magnesium Lamp," was interesting in a practical point of view. Mr. Larkin showed by experiment that a brilliant light might be obtained from magnesium in powder (instead of riband or wire), and stated that the cost would be only 1d. per hour.

In Section C, the President drew attention to the composition of the crust of the earth, partly of igneous and partly of aqueous rocks, and endeavoured to show, from the admitted position of the various strata, that the ancient changes in our globe had not been due to sudden cataclysms, but to the gradual working of physical causes. He enforced this argument by the consideration that many species of organic beings which are still in living existence are also found in a fossil state.

"This reasoning," he continued, "assures us that there never has been universally over the world any complete destruction of life, but that the succession of

existences has gone on in regular order and sequence; but that we have lost a great number of the records,-whole chapters, whole books, by the immense disturbance of the earth's crust in the late periods of time. We must remember, looking at this duration, that we have still a large percentage of the marine life which has managed to live on to the present day; this must show that there has not been any universal catastrophe which destroyed the life of the world ; there cannot possibly have been so, because so many of the forms are still alive." Among the many valuable papers read in this Section, was that of Mr. R. A. Peacock, "On a Case of Gradual Change of Form and Position of Land at the South End of the Isle of Walney;" on which a debate arose, in the course of which the encroachments of the sea in some parts of the country and the compensating recovery of land in other parts were noticed, the latter being ascribed to a gradual rising of the solid crust. Two more papers gave rise to interesting debates. These were Sir R. I. Murchison's, "On the various Tracts of England and Wales in which no Productive Beds of Coal can be looked for," and that of the Rev. J. Gunn, "On the Anglo-Belgian Basin of the Forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Union of England with the Continent during the Glacial Period." Both these papers had been drawn forth by the desire of considering a theory of Mr. Godwin Austen, as to the supposed extension of the coal measures of France and Belgium under the British Channel to the south-east of England. If Mr. Godwin Austen is right, we shall have plenty of coal for thousands of years. But even if (as Sir R. I. Murchison is inclined to suppose) the theory of Mr. Austen is erroneous, we have still no serious ground for apprehension, as the sea contains an immeasurable store of hydrogen, which, sooner or later, we shall probably learn to extract in some cheap and practical manner.

In Section D, the President made no formal Address; but on one of the days he made some observations to the members of the Section and of its two Departments or sub-sections, which were assembled in the same place for the purpose. In the Section itself, amongst a vast number of other papers, that of Mr. F. Buckland on "Oyster Cultivation," and that of Mr. J. K. Lord "On the Indians of Vancouver Island," were among the most attractive, the one from its obvious utility, the other from its treating of a race, within our own dominions, which is fast disappearing before the advance of civilized man. In the Department of Physiology one of the prominent speakers was Dr. Richardson, who gave some amusing "Physical Demonstrations of Local Insensibility." Dr. Richardson's experiments seem to have been unusually successful, for we read that—

"Dr. Richardson submitted the arm of Mr. Grove, the President of the Association, to his process for producing local anæsthesia, and then proved the result by sticking needles into Mr. Grove's arm; which seemed a proceeding rather pleasing than otherwise to the learned President."

In the Department of Anthropology some interesting discussion took place as to the Lake Dwellings in Ireland; and statements were made as to the existence of some "Crannages," as they are called, as late as the time of Cromwell. This information tends to confirm the view which we have more than once ventured to throw out, as to the rashness of hastily assuming such habitations to be of prehistoric date.

The President of Section E opened the proceedings with a very interesting Address. He commenced by passing in review the recent acquisitions and speculations in Geography and Ethnology. After touching upon the various present topics of interest, and upon the doubts still hanging over some of the

most recent geographical theories, he drew attention to the value of language as an aid to the study of Ethnology.

"The Celtic and the Hindoo, the early Persian, the Hellenic and Latin races betray the community of their origin in the dialectic affinities of the tongues they speak. On the banks of the Tigris and the Euphrates the Arab employs a language which is the lineal descendant, with few fundamental changes, of that spoken by his forefathers in the days of the Hebrew patriarchs; whilst in the Semitic names scattered along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and eastern coasts of Africa, we have unerring indications of the progress and settlements of early Semitic tribes. However plastic and evanescent, under certain local conditions, characteristic forms of speech may be, they still afford, in the history of man, the key to many of the vicissitudes that have marked his migrations."

Sir S. W. Baker then delivered an unwritten Address respecting the Nile and its source, which is recorded under the title "On the Relations of the Abyssinian Tributaries of the Nile and the Equatorial Lakes to the Inundations of Egypt." His Address could not fail to engage attention, coming as it did from one who gathered his stock of knowledge both from ancient narrative and from personal observation. Sir S. W. Baker's friends, however, will probably regret, for his sake, that he appears to insist rather too confidently on the finality of his discovery, and claims, in fact, as Speke claimed before him, to have put the question of the source of the Nile beyond dispute. Dr. C. T. Beke afterwards read a very interesting paper "On the Possibility of Diverting the Waters of the Nile into the Red Sea," and argued that the feat he spoke of had, in all probability, been partially accomplished in ancient times. Sir S. W. Baker opposed this theory, denying that there existed any natural facility for such a diversion of the waters. Among the other papers read in this most attractive Section were Sir J. Crawfurd's, 'On Cæsar's Account of Britain and its Inhabitants;" Mr. T. Baines's, " On the Zambesi River and its probable Westernmost Source;" M. P. B. Du Chaillu's, "On the Physical Geography and Tribes of Western Equatorial Africa,” and a large number of others, very little, if at all, inferior to the above in interest and importance.

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In Section F, the President's Address was not of a particularly lucid character. This, however, was perhaps a necessary consequence of the nature of the subject. The principal topics to which allusion was made, were the supposed likelihood of exhaustion of our coal measures, and the causes of the recent monetary crisis. The President inclined to the opinion that the crisis was due, in the main, to the imprudent action of certain banks, which had made advances at long dates or on securities not readily convertible. As to the probable consequences of the panic, he said :

"The distrust which has followed on the failure of some of these banks had led to an absorption of a large amount of the note currency by the solvent banks, with a view to making their position impregnable. But this retention of notes, as it has limited the amount of accommodation, has indirectly raised the rate of discount; and thus it follows, that as long as the rate is high, the notes are hoarded, and as long as the notes are hoarded, the rate will be high.”

The learned Professor probably meant that the hoarding of notes and the high rate of discount must act and react upon one another. For the proposition thus stated, there is probably sufficient ground; but the President, losing sight of logical accuracy in his search for antithesis, has made it appear that the notes must always be hoarded, and the rate of discount must for ever be high!

Among the papers read in this Section we may mention, "On the Practicability

of employing a Common Notation for Electric Telegraphy," by Mr. J. G. Joyce ; "On the Classification of the various Occupations of the People," by Mr. F. J. Wilson; "On the Lace and Hosiery Trades of Nottingham," by Mr. Felkin. Several other papers were read, attacking at various points the present state of the Law of Real Property and the like; and the Reports of the Committees of the Association on "Scientific Evidence" and on 66 Uniformity of Weights and Measures" were brought forward by Professors Williamson and Leone Levi respectively.

In Section G, the President, after pointing out the importance of Mechanical Science as a means of protecting the country from external violence, changed the topic, and made graceful allusion to the manufacturing greatness of Nottingham. The papers read were very numerous, and in many cases they were too technical to be mentioned here. Captain Noble's paper, however, "On the Penetration of Shots and the Resistance of Ironclad Defences," and that of Captain D. Galton, “On the Chalmers Target," related to subjects in which a maritime nation must be deeply interested. Among other papers of practical value, were Mr. S. J. Mackie's, On Zinc Sheathing for Ships;" Mr. W. E. Carrett's, “On an Hydraulic Coal-cutting Machine;" and Mr. F. Ingle's, "On Recent Improvements in the Application of Concrete to Fireproof Constructions."

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The most important scientific triumph of the year is, unquestionably, the completion of the Atlantic Telegraph. By the help of a level bottom, or "submarine plateau," as it is called, a telegraphic cable has been laid from continent to continent, and Europe and America may converse as rapidly as they please. We cannot expect to find such a plateau in many places; but that which has, after numerous attempts, been now effected in one manner, may, some day, be accomplished in another. The recovery of the lost end of the cable of 1865 from the bed of the ocean was perhaps even a more marvellous feat than the successful completion of the new communication.

In a less conspicuous but not less important sphere, many laborious philosophers are at work with the spectroscope, the camera, and the telescope. During the last year Mr. Huggins has ascertained, by the aid of the first-mentioned instrument, that the nucleus of a comet (Comet 1 of 1866) is probably gaseous. Although this information is scarcely conclusive, yet it proves a useful step in advance of the mere conjectures which were indulged in before, as to the composition of comets.

The theory of the identity or convertibility of heat and force is gaining ground, and, with it, the impression that no heat or force is lost, and that all that seems to be needlessly expended now (as, for instance, the sun's rays shed on the sand of the desert) may hereafter become beneficial by some remote and as yet unknown result.

A new metal, allied to those of the alkaline series, and giving a sharp darkblue line in the spectroscope, has been discovered by MM. Meinecke and Rossler. The recently-discovered metal called Indium is now readily procured by a process invented by Winckler.

M. Boussingault continues his researches on the Action of Foliage (to which allusion was made in the previous Retrospect), and would seem to have arrived at some tangible results. From various experiments, he has been led to believe that the leaves of plants placed in the sunshine decompose carbonic acid rapidly when that gas is in a mixture with atmospheric air, or with nitrogen or hydrogen. The oxygen of the atmosphere appears to play no part in the so-called "respiration." That figurative term, however, is applicable so far as

this, that plants, as well as animals, would appear to require oxygen for their existence.

Mr. Grove, President of the British Association, stated in his opening Address, that the recognized number of known planets could now be stated at eightyeight, instead of seven.

Professor Owen has added to his wide reputation by the publication of two volumes of his work on "The Anatomy of Vertebrates," including fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Among other scientific works which have not been mentioned under special heads in our Retrospect of Literature, are Mr. C. Bray's treatise" On Force and its Mental and Moral Correlates;" Mr. Evan Hopkins's "Geology and Terrestrial Magnetism;" Sir John Herschel's "Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects;" and translations of M. Louis Figuier's “ World before the Deluge" and "Vegetable World."

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Mr. George Rennie, the eminent engineer, died in March. He was eldest son of John Rennie, the builder of Waterloo Bridge, and brother of Sir John Rennie, in conjunction with whom he executed the great dock gates at Sebastopol and a large number of similar works in England, besides harbours, bridges, and machinery of various kinds, both in England and abroad. George Rennie himself constructed several foreign railways, and was the author of many works on subjects relating to his profession.

Dr. William Henry Harvey, Professor of Botany in the University of Dublin, died in February. He was a great traveller, and a man of indefatigable industry. Among his most important works are the " Phycologia Britannica” and “Phycologia Australica."

In March died the Rev. William Whewell, D.D., for many years Master of Trinity College. Although conversant with both natural and moral science, and well known in every learned Society, he is not, perhaps, to be reckoned among those who have aided their countrymen by making important steps in advance. But although he will thus be less known to posterity than many men in a more obscure position, he was an able officer of the educational body to which he belonged; and his name will long be remembered as that of one to whom the University of Cambridge owes much.

Lastly, we have to record the decease of Dr. John Lee, a gentleman of considerable fortune, who had for some years devoted himself to the study of astronomy, and had been President of the Astronomical Society. His name originally was Fiott, but he assumed the name of Lee on taking possession of the estate of Hartwell, near Aylesbury, which had been the property of his relative, Sir George Lee. Many people are still living who can remember that Hartwell was the residence of the exiled King of France before the selfish power of the first French Empire was crushed beneath the tardy but effective indignation of outraged Europe.

We now conclude our Annual Retrospect, which we present for the fourth time to the readers of the "Annual Register." The great object we have in view is to gather together in a small space such a collection of facts and opinions as may be agreeable and useful to the general public. Thus we desire, on the one hand, to avoid prolixity, and, on the other, to guard against omitting important circumstances. Considering the somewhat unusual nature of the undertaking, we trust that we have not been altogether unsuccessful; but we shall count upon gaining experience as we proceed, and we hope that, although the quantity of this brief summary may long remain the same, its quality will be judged by no fixed standard, but will steadily improve from year to year.