old, cannot be answered without involving a fierce dispute; that it remains without the prospect of a satisfactory answer, notwithstanding the very great exertions made to determine it.

Committees of the learned in foreign countries have sat upon it; sections of British Associations have discussed it; it has elicited eloquent nonsense in Parisian Institutes; it has employed the pens of our most energetic writers; but still without any certain result as to the question itself. The scientific world has not agreed in its report upon the subject.

ous terrors,-a sort of perpetual Walpurgis meeting for witches and fiends. It was for a long time the head-quarters of the evil one himself, who, only from time to time, quitted it for short foraging incursions into neighboring regions. In its superstitions there were none of the levities and prettinesses belonging to those of other lands; a fine earnest gloom dwelt upon them; they took a sombre color from black forests and fir-covered mountains. Teutonic fairies were elfins who left no graceful traces of a mirthful presence; dark trees waved, and sullen winds groaned above the shades where they congregated. Here rushWhere doctors differ so resolutely, it can- ed the wild huntsman like a blast of sudden not be proper for the unlearned to decide; air; there thundered the sports of the redbut it may be not unamusing to some to be bearded emperor with his entranced court of put in possession of the grounds of dispute, to antiquated knights; aloft in mountain recesstrace their source, and to follow in the steps es grinned the hoarding and mischievous gobof the most curious among the many curious lin; far underground sounded the axe of the results of chemical research. There is here mining gnome. But it was not only a rustic every thing that can make the investigation population of hill and dale that was surroundinteresting. In this history of the decompo-ed by unholy influences; the cities of Germasition of water we find four great scientific ny swarmed with devilish agents, who made names of European celebrity perpetually recurring together; we see the struggle of powerful minds both for and against truth; we read in that conflict many signs of the strangely restless period to which it belonged, -the great epoch of subversion, when a new world was suddenly made and an old one as suddenly broken to pieces and forgotten. There is in this history a revolution with its-travelled, grave, and old-fashioned in asantagonist principles of conservatism and de- pect, with a sober-cut beard and a large struction; its over-zealous innovators, who round hat, for very good reasons fixed immovdemolished one fabric and built up another ably upon his head. He began by testing the so hastily that a succeeding generation found philosophy of his entertainers with artful no safety in it without another change; its questions, and, if satisfied, ended by promisbigots, who, to preserve all, lost all; and its ing, but not unconditionally, the red powder wise contemners of extreme opinions, who, and the universal medicine. In spite, howas usual, were silenced by the clamors of ex-ever, of the popular faith which joined in this tremes.

If, as Mr. Babbage has said, chemistry was only exalted into a science by Dalton's theory of definite proportionals, how little claim had the vast assemblage of ungrouped facts engendered in alchemic fires to such a title, which involves, we are told, so "orderly and methodical an arrangement as to render the knowledge of the few attainable by the many?"

of philosophy and the thirst for knowledge a pit for the unwary. The tempter often appeared bodily to such as he thought ripe for his tuition. Sometimes he came before strong minds like himself in all the dreadful majesty of horns and hoofs, but such an experiment was not often tried. More usually he looked like a staid citizen of other lands,

way alchemy with such other black arts as printing and medicine, in spite of the mystical vagaries by which some of its followers countenanced this faith, the adorers of transmutation were a devout body. Their most renowned writings are full of pious exclamations and thanksgivings. The venerated Musitanus exhorted young alchemists to the great performance "in the name of God.” The life of such a man was one of incessant labor. A really miserably deficient knowledge of chemistry kept his faculties upon the utmost stretch in following the numerous results of his pell-mell mixings and separations; unacquainted with the properties of the substances employed, he was entirely at their mercy; like the mariner, isolated from his kind, and launched upon the wide waste of waters, he was awed into a sense of superior

Alchemy during the middle ages had, it is well known, considerable votaries in every part of Europe, but now here did these abound in such numbers of successful discoverers as in Germany. There was something in the nature of this pursuit especially suitable to the wonder-seeking, wonder-creating character of the nation. Germany has always been the haunted country of Europe, the capital residence of all ugly hobgoblins and mysteri-power. JUNE, 1844.

12

In spite of these tricks, which tended gradually to bring alchemy into disrepute, and to degrade its professors to the rank of common fortune-tellers and charmers, a rage for the pursuit of the philosopher's stone continued on the increase from the twelfth to the seventeenth century. There was hardly a sect of mystical illuminati which did not worship. Albertus of Cologne as Albertus Magnus. The possession of the universal solvent was the grand secret of Rosicrucian freemasonry.

Secluded in his stifling laboratory, the al- tomed crucibles yielded them a high inchemist revolved his one idea, for the devel- terest. opment of which alone he lived. His silent world became strangely peopled: the imaginations of his nomenclature appeared realized; he watched the smoke and flame of his furnace, the smoke which told of impurities exhaled, the fire which cleansed, until their very tremor became a sign of hope or terror; he hung fondly upon the loaded crucible until he began to recognize in the movements of fused metals a struggle with intentions and passions akin to his own; the agony of his desire gave him faith; he trembled into be- Neither Paracelsus, nor Van Helmont, nor lief like a dying man; his stake was too Sylvius, the great medicine and mystery-men great to admit of questionings in religion of the middle ages, taught any thing in oppothe alchemist went to prayers before projec- sition to the sublime art. A dark cloud hung tion. But it is easy to imagine how this over the processes of the laboratory, unexhalf-crazed, half-wise being, a prey to every plained facts accumulated in a frightful manimpulse of fancy, might sometimes torture ner, and were announced in formulæ of himself into a confession of sinful faith; which the mysterious perplexity was still instretched from day to day upon the rack of creasing. But, after this long night, morning hope deferred, he grew pale, his strength was at hand; the time approached when alfailed in vigils and fastings; his mind waxed chemy was to be merged in a simpler chemfeeble by perpetual struggles; his resources istry. A soaring and active mind was needwere all exhausted, and his fire extinct, with-ed to dispel its gloomy vagueness; such a out the wished result. Then came despair, mind was bestowed upon George Ernst Stahl. and a new frenzy; he began to feel, with Mo- Born at Anspach in 1660, he was brought up ther Sawyer in the play, that, in the medical profession, and early turned his attention to chemical pursuits. Ardent even to violence, enterprising and ambitious, he found the old ideas of the scientific world nearly worn out; every thing there was preparing for a grand movement. Stahl put himself at its head.

"'Tis all one

To be a witch as to be counted one,"

and received renewed powers from his belief in inferual protection. Often the unhappy man deceived himself by most cunning pro

cesses.

He would introduce into the alembic with his right hand, so secretly that his left should not discover it, small portions of precious metals, and then feign to find them as the produce of his own manufacture. Sometimes he would join cinnabar with silver in one fiery ordeal, and thus apparently multiply the latter during the process.

The chief object of an experimentalist in those days was to determine the number and character of nature's elementary bodies. This he in general accomplished by setting out with the original pattern, furnished by the old theorists, of earth, air, fire, and water, and modifying this as he went along according to the character of the country he explored. Whichever class of bodies he chanced most frequently to encounter, or with which he was especially fortunate in experiment, was defied as elementary, and either earth, or air, or fire, or water, degraded in its favor. Thus, the alchemists gave their vote for mercury, that doubtful metal, so useful in fixing and subliming processes; thus, the wise old Glauber made a favorite of salt indefinitely, because all his most successful experiments were made among that class of bodies. Thus the physician Beecher, who had descended into something like geology in his Physica The conjuring alchemists had numerous Subterranea, elected three imaginary earths, proselytes and dupes. Every subtle found an from whence he concocted all sorts of miner Epicure Mammon or a Dap er. They may, als and metals. Beecher came before Stahl indeed, be said to have discovered the art of as his pioneer, pointed out the way he should transmutation; the gold in their false-bot-travel, and suggested many parts of his most

These experiments were imitated with less singleness of purpose by another class of men. A species of mock alchemist appeared, caricatures of the regular practitioners, who performed in their characters of juggler far more wonderful feats than the philosopher could pretend to do. Herr Dobbler, dealing around his inexhaustible supply of flowers, and the Neapolitan priest showing the miracle of St. Januarius, are for the moment greater men than the most expert chemist or mechanic.

celebrated doctrines. In making out his list leading chemists of the day. By giving exof elementary bodies, Stahl adopted two of istence to phlogiston alone, Stahl was enaBeecher's catalogue, the third he rejected to bled to explain all the then known processes make room for acid. He had early turned of chemistry, and it is impossible to deny his attention to the phenomena of combustion, him the merit of having arranged with extrasetting out with an idea that, in every com- ordinary ease, as well as simplicity, the bustible body, fire, or an inflammable princi- shapeless, distorted formula of his predecesple, is actually a constituent part of it; that sors. He at least held the light which showthis put in motion and vibrated into a sensi-ed to philosophers the chaos around them; he ble shape, when a body is, in common lan- did service, if only by making darkness visiguage, burnt. So far Stahl was on tolerably ble. The time had arrived when theory, safe ground, and only proposed an hypothe- having some reasonable appearance of truth, sis like one to which some modern philoso- was absolutely necessary. Things were rephers have been inclined: but he did not duced to such a pass, that, without a theory stop here; he was determined to give an ex-to connect chemical facts and to spring seemplanation of all the phenomena connected ingly from them, no more could have been with the heating and consuming processes. assembled. This want Stahl supplied. The combustion of phosphorus yielded an Without the admirable results obtained by acid body. According to Stahl, phosphorus, his followers in the support of his philosophy, then, was a compound of the elements acid it could never have been overturned for the and fire. The metals heated or burnt were true one. The Lavoiserian system owed to converted into certain earthy-looking sub-them all its facts. stances; they were then composed of the el

descended to impress birds and beasts, eagles and lions, the monarchs of the air and of the forest, into its service.

One of the useful consequences of an exements earth and fire. These calces, as they tensive theory, common to all chemists, was were called, were restored to the metallic the establishment of a serviceable nomenclastate by heating with charcoal. Charcoal, ture. The alchemists named bodies at hazreasoned Stahl, is a body which burns easily; ard, according to certain imaginary virtues it, therefore, contains much inflammable and functions with which they were endowed, principle, and restores calcined metals by and expressed them by complicated symbols. giving it up to them. In this way did Stahl In this nomenclature were included all pringo on to explain by arguments which we cipalities and powers, kings and queens with need not follow in every part, as we do not fountains to bathe in, marriages and divorces, adopt them in any, all the known effects of to be celebrated by red bridegrooms and combustion; and thus was developed that silver brides. It adopted metallic divinities, most famous theory called phlogistic, be- representatives of pagan gods, and even concause the name of phlogiston was given to the universal inflammable principle. Those readers to whom the modern explanation of the phenomena of burning bodies is familiar, This curious jumble formed altogether not who can point out the action of the air in a bad index to the state of mind induced in converting phosphorus into an acid and the fervent solitary men by a sincere alchemy. metals to earths, who can show that charcoal The contentions with imaginary enemies, the restores metals by depriving them of their visions of beauty and glory, the glimpses of oxygen, will not have failed to remark here a deep hell-all were there typified. In prohow resolutely Stahl ran away from the truth, portion as the objects of pursuit became more how constantly he wrote minus for plus, and evidently attainable and rational, the nomentransposed all the signs of nature in his clature of chemistry assumed a more tranquil methods of interpretation. But the genius character. Alchemical terms for the most of this man should not be estimated by a part disappeared with the study of alchemy. comparison of the philosophical chemistry of The Stahlians, however, were not scientific the present century with the wild theories of enough to make classes, and at once to define the last, but by a simultaneous view of the the place of a body in these by certain regustate of science before and after the estab-lated terminations, as was done in later days. lishment of his doctrines. Considerable in- They wisely then gave names in general genuity must be allowed to that hypothesis simply descriptive of certain tangible qualiwhich was able to maintain its ground, not ties, of the manner or of the source of the only in spite, but apparently by means, of production of a substance, and for this purthe immense number of new facts brought to pose found it convenient to retain much of bear upon it for nearly half a century after an older nomenclature. its proposal, and which at the end of that period continued to be maintained by some

A few specimens will suffice to illustrate their sage no-system :

Old Names.

Powder of Algarotti.

Rotrou's Solvent.

Stahl's Sulphurous Salt.

Spirit of Menderus.

Terra Foliata Tartari.

Terra Foliata, with Lemon juice.

Mineral Terra Foliata.

Sedative Salt.

Earth of Bones.

White Nitrous Acid.

Fuming Nitrous Acid.
Alkaline Livers of Sulphur.
Factitious Iron Pyrites.

In this way, although great inconveniences must have been felt from so disjointed a nomenclature, the danger of grafting hypotheses upon it was at first avoided. It would have been happy for Stahlianism if it had continued to shun so great an evil, which ultimately, indeed, provoked its downfall.

Modern Names.

Oxide of Antimony.

Alkaline Oxide of Antimony.
Sulphite of Potash.
Acetite of Ammonia.
Acetite of Potash.

Citrate of Potash.
Acetite of Soda.
Boracic Acid.

Phosphate of Lime.

Nitric Acid.

Nitrous Acid.

Sulphuret of Potash, or Soda.
Sulphuret of Iron,

Stahl and his immediate followers had simply defined phlogiston to be the principle of combustion and of levity, the latter property being introduced into the definition to explain the non-diminution in weight of bodies after combustion in close vessels, their notions upon the subject were confessedly vaguetheir phlogiston could not be retained alone

But

When the theory of combustion was first proposed, although many facts were undoubt--it could not be weighed-no sense took edly wanting, according to modern principles cognizance of it—all its qualities were negaof philosophizing for the establishment of its tive-it was little more than a name. truth, yet there were none known which ac- a far more mischievous doctrine than this pritually militated against it. By degrees, how- mary hypothesis of Stahl was now to arise ever, as the field of research expanded, results from it. It became necessary to concede a came forth which were found more difficult certain materiality to phlogiston. There of explanation. Perplexities multiplied as fast were bold chemists who undertook to give it as experiments. Phlogiston was no longer weight, and still bolder experimentalists who the complaisant and serviceable agent by determined the precise amount of that weight. means of which a reason could be assigned Bergman made a place for it in his famous to every chemical phenomenon, but a very tables of elective attraction. The quantity rebel-an intractable mutineer against all es- of phlogiston belonging to every metal was tablished authorities, requiring to be alternate- actually registered in many chemical works. ly coaxed and constrained into dutiful action. Mathematical formula were introduced to exThe writings of the experimentalist became press the affinities and densities made known more hypothetical in proportion as his favor- through the most ingeniously erroneous proite belief was, not shaken, but considerably cesses. It began to appear every where in puzzled; he was now continually called upon the nomenclature of chemistry. In 1722 Dr. to extend his credulity beyond the elementa- Rutherford had discovered the existence of a ry doctrine of phlogiston, which it was found peculiar air, incapable of sustaining combusnecessary, as the science enlarged itself, to tion, and destructive of animal life. sustain by the introduction of absurdities was found in vessels where bodies had been sufficiently bitter, no doubt, to the taste of burnt, it received the significant title of phlothe philosopher, but absolutely necessary to gisticated air, on the supposition that phlothe tranquillity of the Stahlian. It is really giston had been imparted to it from the burnpainful to look back upon this epoch of chem- ing body. On the other hand, Priestley, by ical history, and to read all the consequences heating red lead, obtained an air with exactly of obstinate adherence to a merely conven- opposite properties-an air which supported ient hypothesis; in the wanderings of a mind combustion and animal life. It received the acute as that of Scheele, who stooped to the name of dephlogisticated air, and was conframing of romances which would have found sidered as air purified from phlogiston by the a fit place with the fairy tales of a child's li- absortive action of foreign bodies. The red brary; in the maintenance until death of lead was gradually reduced to the metallic errors which the ignorant had abjured, by state during the heating process; it had, conthe impetuous Priestley; int he blundering sequently, combined with the phlogiston in experiments of an intelligent Kirwan, which the atmosphere. The last step in this descendseemed made only for the purpose of retain- ing scale of error was made when philosophiing an unwilling world in a radically false cal chemists seized upon a well-known gas, system. with very peculiar properties, to worship as

As this

the representative of their darling principle of the year 1780 will shew how far phlogisitself. A glance at part of the nomenclature ton had been insinuated into it :

It was only in 1766 that the scientific | conversation," but "from"ah actual aversion world became intimately acquainted wtih the to the acquisition of that sort of knowlimportant gas which we now call hydrogen. edge. Constitutionally shy, an unexpected The paper entitled “ 'Experiments on Facti- intrusion upon his retirement gave him the tious Air," in which its nature was distinctly made known, is also valuable as the first important communication of Mr. Cavendish to the Royal Society.

appearance of sullen haughtiness really foreign to his nature. He suffered so much annoyance from the usual ceremonies of society, as even, occasionally, violently to reLord Charles Cavendish was an intelligent sent a visit of mere necessity and civility. nobleman, who, for many years, addicted him- Many whimsical stories are related in illustraself with success to scientific pursuits; but tion of this. On one occasion an eminent his researches bestowed upon the world no banker, with whom Mr. Cavendish dealt, rebenefit so great as the gift he presented to it marked that the sum accumulated in the phiin his son. Henry Cavendish, the honorable losopher's name had increased to a very enorgrandson of two dukes, and during a long mous sum. This gentleman set out for Mr. period one of the richest commoners in Eng- Cavendish's villa to inform him of the circumland, devoted himself to philosophy, urged by stance; admitted to his presence after some a steady passion for the acquisition of truth. delay, he was received with a cold uninterFor this he neglected the natural delights of ested salutation. As soon as his tale was youth, voluntarily relinquished the pleasures told, Cavendish, without making any other belonging to wealth and station, and disapear- remark, inquired if he had no more to say; ed from society to exist only in the library or then rung the bell, and summarily dismissed the laboratory. Educated at Cambridge, the him. But the vengeance was to come. The severe studies which are necessary for dis- next day every shilling belonging to Mr. Cavtinction, and which render the years passed endish was withdrawn from the bankingthere the most learned portion of an ordinary house of his unfortunate visitor. At another young man's life, were to Cavendish but the time when an admiring foreigner had just first steps in his laboriou scourse; they afford- obtained an introduction to the great English ed him only the elements of knowledge, which chemist at Sir Joseph Banks's soirée, Cavenhe was subsequently to enlarge by original dish fairly ran away, and left him gesticulathought and original research. His talents, ting in the middle of a complimentary adadmirably qualified for severe investigation, dress. were assisted by the singularities of his moral This unhappy disposition for seclusion character in forming what Cuvier enthusi- amounted, at times, almost to insanity; inastically called "the perfect model of a man deed, the general eccentricities of Mr. Cavof science;" they were delivered from all endish were so great, as to warrant a suppotemptation to less exertions by his reserved sition that the severe studies, in which his disposition, and were never hurried into ab- extraordinary faculties were constantly occusurdities by too eager an appetite for worldly pied, had alone preserved him from the wandistinction. He was painfully diffident of his derings of a madman. His reserve increased own powers, and this, not from a too careful with his years; he had long shunned the sostudy of them, as is often the case, but from ciety of his noble connexions, and, in his lata morbid delicacy of taste. From his earliest ter days, he withdrew even from that of his years he had avoided much intercourse with scientific contemporaries; occasionally only the world, not because he thought, with hesat a tnoughtful judge, rather than a listenworthy Parson Brand, in Richardson's story, er at, Royal Society festivities. His villa, at that a knowledge of human nature was best Streatham, became the scene of his scientific learned in books, "the calm result of wise pleasures. There he lived in a perfect solimen's wisdom, uninterrupted by the noise tude. Any of the neighboring inhabitants and vanities that will mingle with personal who chanced occasionally to cross his path