But

ends, one of which is movable, being adjusted by a ing the thickness of the spacing. If a little more slide and screw, so that the same "stick" can be room is wanted, the compositor makes it by taking used for lines of any usual length. In ordinary out thick spaces between the words, and putting in book work it is about six inches long, and will hold thinner ones; or he may reverse the process, and about 18 lines of this type. The rule is a smooth, fill out the line by putting in thicker spaces. thin slip of metal as broad as the type is high, and as in all good work the spacing must be uniform. long as the line which is to be set. It serves as a Not only must each line be nearly equally spaced, smooth surface upon which the type may slide to its but the different lines must be nearly alike in this proper place, and to keep in position the lines already respect. This process is called "justifying," and set. When a line has been completed, the rule is occupies about a quarter of the time spent in comtaken from behind it and placed before it, and so on. position. While justifying, the compositor usually The compositor stands in front of the centre of runs his eye along the line and corrects any error his frame, his stick held in his left hand, and his which he perceives that he has made. The letters copy" before him, usually lying upon the right- on the type are reversed, as will be seen by the ilhand side of the upper case. He reads as many lustration of the "composing-stick;" but he soon words as he can readily remember by once reading, learns to read them with perfect ease. He does not and proceeds to pick up, one by one, from their re- look at the face of the letter as he picks it up, but spective boxes, the letters of which the words are assumes that each type will be found in its proper composed, until the line is nearly full. Each print-box. When his stick is full, he proceeds to empty ed line must end with a completed word or sylla- it. The stick lying upon the case, he places the ble; and it will rarely happen that it comes out rule in front of the top line; the forefinger of each exactly full, but it must be made to do so by alter-hand presses against this, the second fingers press

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BIECLION IN V WIKKOK

BEAEB2ED VAD WVDE TECIBTE BAKE

FIG. 7.-Composing-Stick.

:

consist of more than 1000 separate pieces, yet it is handled apparently as carelessly as though it were a solid mass. This manual dexterity is acquired only by practice. The compositor usually commences by emptying a few lines at a time; but every one has sorrowful reminiscences of the heaps of "pi" resulting from his early attempts to empty his stick. The labor of hours may have been destroyed in an instant with the further loss of half as much more time in distributing the pi without pay -for every.compositor must clear up his own ruins.

In the term " composition" is included the pro cess of distribution;" that is, returning the types which have been used to the cases. The compositor takes up a score or two of lines, holding them in his left hand, the face being toward him, the bottom resting on the rule, and all kept in place by the outspread thumb and fingers. He takes off as many letters as he can conveniently hold between ing against the ends of the lines, the thumbs bear- the balls of the thumb and forefinger of the right ing against the last line; then by a quick motion hand, and holds them for an instant before his eye of the other fingers the stick is pushed down, and while he reads them; then the hand, with these the "matter" is lifted out, and deposited on a "gal- types in it, hovers over the lower case with a moley," which is a long piece of wood or metal with tion almost like that of a bird on the wing, droptwo or more raised sides, against which the "mat-ping the letters in a continual shower each into its ter rests securely. A stickful of small type may own box. This operation, performed, as it were,

npon the wing, must be executed with great pre-press-room. But frequently, and in this establishcision, for three-quarters of the boxes into which ment always, the printing is done directly from the types fall are not more than two inches square. stereotype or electrotype casts taken from the typeA good compositor will distribute about 12,000 sorts pages. The advantages of this are numerous, but an hour, from three to four a second, without per- we have not here space to detail them. haps making twenty errors in all. It behooves him to distribute "cleanly," for every error made in "distribution" inevitably shows itself in the subsequent "composition." Few operations involve so much digital dexterity as that of the compositor in distributing type.

When the compositor has filled a "galley," which usually contains about as much as one of these pages, an impression, called a "proof," is usually taken from the type. Then begins the work of the proof-reader, usually called the "reader." The proof is first read by copy;" that is, an assistant reads the copy aloud, while the reader, with his eye fixed upon the proof, is alert to detect any error, or any discrepancy between the words which he hears and those which he sees. If any word has been changed, omitted, or inserted, he marks it, writing the correction on the margin. If the copy is legible, and the compositor has been careful, there may not be half a dozen errors on a page. Usually there are many more. Sometimes the errors are so numerous that it may take half as much time to make the corrections as it did to set up the matter. Another proof is then taken and revised to see that all the corrections have been made; it is then read again, sometimes even a third or fourth time. In large offices, where there are several proof-readers, it is customary that the different proofs shall be read by different persons, since an error which has escaped one may probably be detected by another. All these variations from copy must be corrected by the compositor for nothing, for he is paid so much for a certain amount of corrected matter. Alterations from copy are, however, paid for.

In stereotyping, one or more pages are locked up in a small chase, and from these a mould taken in plaster of Paris. Type-metal-a composition mainly of lead and antimony-is poured into this mould, forming a cast of the face of the type. These casts or "plates" are planed down upon the back to a regular thickness, and from them the printing is made precisely as from the types themselves. But for more than twenty years stereotyping has, in this establishment, been entirely superseded by the far better process of electrotyping.

Electrotyping is based upon the principle that the galvanic battery will decompose compound bodies, and make an entirely new disposition of their component elements. A very common compound is sulphate of copper, familiar, under the name of "blue vitriol," as a dyeing material. If a solution of this be made in water, there are present in combination copper, sulphur, bydrogen, and oxygen. The galvanic current decomposes this, disposing of the various elements in its own way; the essential point for our present purpose being that the liberated particles of copper attach themselves in a pure metallic form to the positive pole of the battery, or to any metallic substance connected with it.

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case."

Bearing these facts in mind, let us follow a page of type from the composing-room into the electrotype-room. Here it is moulded. The mould is of beeswax, poured in a melted state into a shallow brass pan, called a Before it is entirely cool, it receives a coating of black-lead, to give it a metallic surface. The page, properly adjusted in a chase, is then placed in the moulding-press, and forced, by a powerful pressure, into the mould, produCompositors are paid either by the day or week, cing a perfect fac-simile in wax. On receiving anor by "the thousand." Piece-work is counted by other coating of black-lead, the mould is placed in the "m;" that is, the face of a lower-case m is sup- a tank filled with a solution of sulphate of copper, posed to be as large one way as another, and this into which enter the poles of a galvanic or electric square is taken as the standard. Most of the other battery, the mould being connected with the posiletters are thinner. A "thousand" is not 1000 let-tive pole, the negative pole being attached to a ters, but the space occupied by 1000 of the letter m, plate of copper. In an instant a thin film of copand will have about 2500 sorts. A good composi- per appears on the "black-leaded" surface of the tor, having fairly written copy, will complete about mould. This increases momently in thickness, un6000 m's, or, say two of these pages, in a day. Sev- til within a time, which can be regulated by the eral very ingenious machines for type-setting have operator-say from an hour upward—it has acquirbeen devised. By simply touching keys, as in play-ed the requisite thickness-about that of a sheet ing upon the organ, the types, liberated one by one of stout paper. The upper surface of this "shell," from upright receptacles in which they have been when taken from the mould, is a perfect facplaced-which may be considered the pipes of the simile of the face of the original page, the minutest organ—are made to glide in a continuous stream, line of an engraving being reproduced with absolute forming themselves into the required words and precision. The shell looks as though one had with sentences, much more rapidly than a compositor punches stamped every line and letter into a thin could pick them up. But the lines must be "jus- sheet of copper. This thin shell would be crushed tified" by hand. Still more ingenious, but as yet flat by the immense pressure of the printing-press. not so successful, are the "distributing-machines," It must be "backed up" with type-metal. This by which the "dead matter" is distributed automat- metal will not, even when melted, adhere firmly to ically, and without human intervention, into its prop- a sheet of copper; but it will adhere to tin, and er receptacles. But, taking all things into account, melted tin will adhere to copper. A sheet of tinnone of these machines have proved economical, and foil is laid upon the back of the copper shell, which they have not come into general use. is secured in a shallow iron tray, and heated to a proper temperature. Melted type - metal is then poured over the plate, filling up every depression and forming a solid backing, firmly soldered to the shell. The plates are shaved down to the proper size, and are ready for the press. Electrotyping has many advantages over stereotyping, especially where fine engravings are to be reproduced. The

The matter, finally corrected, is made up into pages. If the printing is to be from the type itself, these pages are made up into a "form" of 4, 8, 12, 16, or more pages, so arranged that they will come in regular order when the sheet is folded; fastened by means of wedges (called "quoins ") into a "chase," or strong iron frame, and taken to the

The first thing which he will notice is eleven cylinder presses, of Hoe's manufacture. Near the south end is the entrance of a passage under the pavement of the court-yard, leading to the vaults which form the lower story of the other building. In one of these vaults, 25 feet below the level of the street, the paper is dampened by machinery, this being the first step, after the plates have been made, in printing a book. At the north

stereotype plaster mould is not perfectly accurate, | to the lower press-room. and the metal expands and contracts a little in heating and cooling. The difference in a page of mere type is hardly perceptible; but in an engraving where each minute line should be faithfully reproduced, it becomes very evident, the finer lines being heavier than in the original; while in an electrotype plate they are exact fac-similes. Besides, the type-metal being soft, and the fine lines very shallow, the stereotype plate of an engraving shows ev-end is the engine-room, containing two Corliss enident signs of wear after a few hundred impressions have been taken. The surface of the electrotype plate, being of hard copper, is much more durable. Indeed in the Magazine no one can perceive that the 100,000th copy is not as perfect as the first.

III. The Printing-Rooms.

The sectional view (Fig. 11) shows the general arrangement of the manufactory. The first, or basement, floor contains the steam-engine, which moves all the machinery of the establishment, and the presses for printing the Weekly and the Bazar. The second floor is devoted to the presses of a different kind, used for the Magazine and for bookwork. Upon the third floor, the sheets, after having been printed, are dried and pressed. Upon the fourth floor, the sheets are folded. Upon the fifth floor, they are stitched or sewed together; and those to be in paper covers here receive them. Upon the sixth floor bound volumes receive their various kinds of covers. The seventh floor contains the electrotype-room and stock-room.

Having reached the bottom of the circular staircase, the visitor descends half a dozen more steps

gines, of 120 horse-power each, working almost without a jar. Either of these is capable of moving all the machinery of the establishment, but it is necessary to keep one in reserve in case of accident, or for necessary repairs. There are also two boilers, side by side, isolated in the court-yard, under a low iron and glass roof, surrounded only by brick and stone; one of which is required for working the engines, the other for heating purposes. Each boiler can be connected with either engine at pleasure. Here also are made the numerous inking-rollers, composed of glue and molasses, boiled together to a proper consistence, and cast in moulds around an iron cylinder.

The eleven presses in the lower press-room are used exclusively for the Weekly and the Bazar. In nine of these presses the plates are imposed upon a flat bed; the impression being given by passing the sheets under an iron cylinder geared to the bed. There are also two rotary presses, of which the bed consists of a large cylindrical drum; and the plates, instead of being flat, form segments of a cylinder of the exact radius of the drum. At different points around the circumference are "impression cylinders," which revolve in

a direction opposite to that of the drum, each of them | place, and to prevent the margins from being blackfurnished with a set of inking-rollers. The sheet is ened. The printer lays the sheet upon the tymcaught by an impression-roller, and pressed against pan, folds the frisket down upon it, and brings them the type-plates which have just been inked by pass- down upon the form. Then by means of the crank, ing under the inking-rollers. One press has four he runs the bed under the platen (P), which he impression cylinders, and prints four sheets, the oth- brings down upon the form by pulling the lever, er has two cylinders, and prints two sheets, at each by which, and the connected knee-and-toggle joint, revolution of the drum. the impression is given. He then rolls back the bed, opens the tympan and frisket, and takes off the sheet now printed; repeating these operations for every successive sheet. Formerly it required two men to work a press; one to pull, and the other to apply the ink. Subsequently, a self-inking apparatus was attached to the press, as shown in Fig. 12. In giving the pull, the pressman also raised a heavy weight, which in its descent drew the ink-roller over the type. One man, though with considerable increase of exertion, was thus able to do the work of two. A good pressman would accomplish about 2000 pulls a day, but he could not well run a press large enough to work a sheet of more than half the size now used.

From this press-room the visitor will pass to the book press-room on the floor next above. Here are two cylinder presses, like those in the room below, and 26 "Adams presses." These have flat beds, and the impression is given by pressing the typeplates against a stationary platen. The action of these presses can be best explained by comparing it with that of the ordinary hand-press.

The presses used by the early printers were rude affairs, the impression being given by a simple screw and lever. Not much better is the press at which Benjamin Franklin worked in London, in 1725, now preserved in the Patent-office at Washington. It is composed almost entirely of wood, and is clumsy in all its parts. Presses entirely of iron were first made early in the present century. The illustration (Fig. 12) gives the most improved form. The type is imposed upon the bed (B), to which is hinged the tympan (T), and to that the frisket (F). The tympan is a light iron frame covered with a smooth cloth, behind which is a soft blanket, forming a sort of cushion, between 'the form and the platen. The frisket is a similar frame covered with paper, having spaces cut out corresponding with the pages of the "form," the object being to hold the sheet to be printed in its

The Adams press (Fig. 13) has essentially the same parts, although differently arranged. The bed rises up against the platen, instead of the platen coming down upon the bed. The tympan is stationary under the platen, which is fixed in its place. The frisket lies horizontally, and is moved forward to receive the sheet, and backward to bring it over the form, resting upon the bed, which has only the upward and downward motion. The "feeder," usually a boy or girl, lays the sheet to be printed upon an inclined plane, the edge slightly projecting. It is caught by a set of iron fingers, which